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“The Important Consideration, After All, Is Disability”: Physical Standards for Teachers in Los Angeles, 1930–1970

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 October 2020

Kristen Chmielewski
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Abstract

Ideas and norms about disability shaped the experiences and careers of every teacher and prospective teacher in the Los Angeles public schools between 1930 and 1970. Medical doctors created and conducted the extensive medical examinations that teaching candidates and practicing teachers needed to pass to enter or remain in the classroom. The Los Angeles City Board of Education capitalized on existing disability-related retirement policies, targeting educators with age-related disabilities and enacting a compulsory retirement age for all teachers. Teachers accused of disability-related incompetence could only retain their positions if they could disprove their diagnoses. By adding this discussion of teachers’ bodies and disability to the historiography of teachers, we can better understand teachers’ experiences and the ways in which school leaders attempted to define and enforce standards of normality.

Keywords

US teachersLos Angeles City Board of Educationdisabilityretirement policycertification examinations
Type
Articles
Information
History of Education Quarterly , Volume 60 , Special Issue 3: Disability and the History of Education , August 2020 , pp. 351 - 379
Copyright
Copyright © 2020 History of Education Society

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References

1 “Physically-Handicapped Applicants for Teachers Examination,” notes from Superintendent's Advisory Council, Aug. 7, 1935, folder 2, box 2193, Los Angeles Unified School District Board of Education Records, UCLA Library Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles (hereafter cited as LA Board Records).

2 Some of these works include Hoffman, Nancy, Woman's “True” Profession: Voices from the History of Teaching, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press, 2003)Google Scholar; Apple, Michael W., Teachers and Texts: A Political Economy of Class and Gender Relations in Education (New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986)Google Scholar; Blount, Jackie M., Fit to Teach: Same-Sex Desire, Gender, and School Work in the Twentieth Century (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2005)Google Scholar; Collins, Christina, “Ethnically Qualified”: Race, Merit, and the Selection of Urban Teachers, 1920–1980 (New York: Teachers College Press, 2011)Google Scholar; Graves, Karen L., And They Were Wonderful Teachers: Florida's Purge of Gay and Lesbian Teachers (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009)Google Scholar; Markowitz, Ruth Jacknow, My Daughter, The Teacher: Jewish Teachers in the New York City Schools (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1993)Google Scholar; Taylor, Clarence, Reds at the Blackboard: Communism, Civil Rights, and the New York City Teachers Union (New York: Columbia University Press, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Perrillo, Jonna, “Beyond ‘Progressive’ Reform: Bodies, Discipline, and the Construction of the Professional Teacher in Interwar America,” History of Education Quarterly 44, no. 3 (Sept. 2004), 337–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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4 Rosemarie Garland-Thomson, “Forward: Bodies Enter the Classroom,” in The Teacher's Body: Embodiment, Authority, and Identity in the Academy, ed. Diane P. Freedman and Martha Stoddard Holmes (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2003), xii-xiii.

5 Baynton, Douglas C., “‘These Pushful Days’: Time and Disability in the Age of Eugenics,” Health and History 13, no. 2 (Jan. 2011), 47–48Google ScholarPubMed.

6 American eugenicists at the beginning of the twentieth century frequently fretted over the future of the “American race,” one that they perceived to be under threat from inferior immigrant races. Robert DeCourcy Ward, for example, wrote of the opportunity to form “a new race of an extraordinarily heterogeneous character” by “a remarkably favorable opportunity for practising eugenic principles in the selection of the fathers and mothers of future American children through our power to regulate alien immigration” in order to ensure that “the new American race will be a better, stronger, more intelligent race, and not a weak and possibly degenerate mongrel.” Ward, Robert DeCourcy, “National Eugenics in Relation to Immigration,“ North American Review 192, no. 656 (July 1910), 57–58Google Scholar.

7 National Education Association (NEA), Fit to Teach: A Study of the Health Problems of Teachers (Washington, DC: Department of Classroom Teachers, NEA, 1938), 2.

8 NEA, Fit to Teach, 5.

9 NEA, Fit to Teach, 8.

10 Wendy Kline, Building a Better Race: Gender, Sexuality, and Eugenics from the Turn of the Century to the Baby Boom (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001); Kim E. Nielsen, A Disability History of the United States (Boston: Beacon Press, 2012); and John Williams-Searle, “Cold Charity: Manhood, Brotherhood, and the Transformation of Disability, 1870–1900,” in The New Disability History: American Perspectives, ed. Paul K. Longmore and Lauri Umansky (New York: New York University Press, 2001).

11 NEA, Fit to Teach, 11.

12 Caughey, John Walton and Caughey, LaRee, To Kill a Child's Spirit: The Tragedy of School Segregation in Los Angeles (Itasca, IL: F. E. Peacock, 1973)Google Scholar; Kun, Josh and Pulido, Laura, eds., Black and Brown in Los Angeles: Beyond Conflict and Coalition (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Wollenberg, Charles, All Deliberate Speed: Segregation and Exclusion in California Schools, 1855–1975 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13 Charter of the City of Los Angeles, annotated: Effective July 1, 1925, with amendments up to and including those effective June 26, 1961, comp. Roger Arnebergh and Walter C. Peterson (Los Angeles: City of Los Angeles, 1961), 57.

14 New York City, Detroit, and Chicago also required teaching candidates to pass medical examinations. Board of Examiners, “Health Standards for Applicants for Licenses,” Dec. 1939, file 308, box 58, series 755, Records of the New York City Board of Education, NYC Department of Records/Municipal Archives, New York City; Board of Examiners, Rules and Information Regarding Examination of Candidates for Certificates to Teach (July 1955), Chicago Board of Education records, Chicago History Museum Research Center; and “The Teacher Selection Process,” Administrative Procedures, Bulletin no. 3 (Sept. 1946), 44–51, folder 7, box 67, Detroit Board of Education/Detroit Public Schools Collection, Walter P. Reuther Library, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI.

15 “Los Angeles Board of Education Second Revised Communication to the Committee of the Whole,” May 15, 1947, folder 2, box 2193, LA Board Records.

16 “Health Record and Physical Examination Form,” Los Angeles City School District Personnel Division, 1939, folder 1, box 2516, LA Board Records.

17 “Subject: Modification of Personnel Health Standards,” communication to the Committee of the Whole from the Personnel Division, no. 2, Nov. 23, 1949, folder 2, box 2193, LA Board Records.

18 “Accommodations Modifying Health Examination for National Defense Teachers,” emergency communication to the Personnel and School Committee from the Instruction and Curriculum Division, no. 1, May 25, 1942, folder 2, box 2193, LA Board Records.

19 “Subject: Proposed Health Standards for Certificated Personnel Returning to Service at the Expiration of Leaves of Absense or upon Original Entrance to Service in the Los Angeles City School Districts,” communication to the Personnel and Schools Committee from the Health Division, June 21, 1945, folder 2, box 2193, LA Board Records.

20 “Los Angeles Board of Education Second Revised Communication to the Committee of the Whole,” May 15, 1947, folder 2, box 2193, LA Board Records.

21 “Subject: Modification of Board Health Rules Covering Personnel Health Standards,” Superintendent of Schools Committee to Los Angeles Board of Education, communication no. 1, June 29, 1964, folder 2, box 2193, LA Board Records. In this memo, the committee changed the “shall be cause for refusal” to “may be cause for refusal,” as long as the “physical, emotional, or mental defect” did not endanger the safety or welfare of the students and the teacher's performance is “strong or better,” but there is little evidence of the Board's actions in regard to teachers aligning with this new policy.

22 The New York City Board of Education waged a war on teacher tenure and retirement in a far more public way, playing up the specter of the mentally ill, unfit teacher in the New York Times while targeting teachers with physical disabilities for early disability retirement. Chmielewski, Kristen, “‘Hopelessly Insane, Some Almost Maniacs”: New York City's War on ‘Unfit’ Teachers,” Paedagogica Historica 54, no. 1–2 (March 2018), 169–83CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

23 All members of the Board of Education attended Committee of the Whole meetings. “Proposed Resignations of Elderly and Otherwise Undesirable Teachers and Principals,” informal notes from the Committee of the Whole meeting, April 3, 1933, folder 1, box 2119, LA Board Records.

24 “Regarding the Resignation of Teachers Over Seventy Years of Age,” informal notes from the Committee of the Whole meeting, Aug. 14, 1933, folder 1, box 2119, LA Board Records.

25 “Regarding the Resignation of Teachers Over Seventy Years of Age,” Aug. 14, 1933, LA Board Records.

26 “Item 2138,” informal notes from the Committee of the Whole meeting, March 5, 1934, folder 1, box 2119, LA Board Records.

27 In 1937, for example, thirteen male educators submitted to the compulsory health examinations; doctors founds eleven to be satisfactory and two to have questionable health issues but to ultimately still be employable. All three educators forced to retired due to the results of their medical examinations in 1937 were women. “Re: Informatory Report Regarding the Status of Certified Employees Seventy Years of Age or Over,” Personnel Division communication to the Committee of the Whole, May 19, 1937, folder 1, box 2119, LA Board Records.

28 “Item 2138,” March 5, 1934, folder 1, box 2119, LA Board Records.

29 J. Plechaty to the Los Angeles City Board of Education, April 4, 1934, folder 1, box 2119, LA Board Records.

30 “Physicians’ Report on Teachers Seventy Years of Age or Over,” informal notes from the Committee of the Whole meeting, June 7, 1934, folder 1, box 2119, LA Board Records.

31 “Certified Employees Seventy Years of Age or Over as of July 1, 1935,” Personnel Section memorandum, Jan. 16, 1936, folder 1, box 2119, LA Board Records.

32 “Standard Health Requirements for Teachers of Seventy Years of Age and Over,” informal notes from the Committee of the Whole meeting, March 14, 1935, folder 1, box 2119, LA Board Records.

33 Untitled informal notes from the Committee of the Whole meeting, April 25, 1935, folder 1, box 2119, LA Board Records.

34 “Teachers and Principals Seventy Years of Age or Over to Be Given Opportunity to Resign,” notes from Superintendent's Advisory Council, May 1, 1935, folder 1, box 2119, LA Board Records.

35 “Teachers Over Seventy Years of Age,” informal notes of the Committee of the Whole, July 31, 1935, folder 1, box 2119, LA Board Records.

36 “Report of Physicians Concerning Examination of Teachers Seventy Years of Age or Over,” informal notes from the Committee of the Whole meeting, June 3, 1935, folder 1, box 2119, LA Board Records.

37 “Report of Physicians Concerning Examination of Teachers Seventy Years of Age or Over,” June 3, 1935, LA Board Records.

38 “Section 1,” informal notes from the Committee of the Whole meeting, June 6, 1935, folder 1, box 2119, LA Board Records.

39 Minutes of the Special Meeting, July 1, 1935, folder 1, box 2119, LA Board Records.

40 “Re. Denial of Sabbatical Leave for Certificated Employees Sixty-Five Years of Age or Over,” from the Service Division's Personnel Section communication to the Teachers and Schools Committee, no. 2, July 18, 1935, folder 1, box 2119, LA Board Records.

41 Frank A. Bouelle, “New Teacher Retirement Law (Assembly Bill 784) Effective Sept. 15, 1935,” Special Bulletin no. 11, Sept. 13, 1935, folder 1, box 2119, LA Board Records.

42 “Results of Examination of Seventy-Year Old Certificated Personnel,” Superintendent's Advisory Council, June 1, 1936, folder 1, box 2119, LA Board Records.

43 “Examination of Seventy-Year Old People,” informal notes from the Committee of the Whole meeting, June 1, 1936, folder 1, box 2119, LA Board Records.

44 C. L. Glenn to the Los Angeles Board of Education, June 11, 1936, folder 1, box 2119, LA Board Records.

45 C. L. Glenn to the Los Angeles Board of Education, June 11, 1936, LA Board Records.

46 C. L. Glenn to the Los Angeles Board of Education, June 11, 1936, LA Board Records.

47 Charles F. Nelson to Mrs. Rounsaville, June 25, 1936, folder 1, box 2119, LA Board Records.

48 Everett M. Mattoon to the Board of Education, July 15, 1936, folder 1, box 2119, LA Board Records.

49 “Re: Informatory Report Regarding the Status of Certified Employees Seventy Years of Age or Over,” May 19, 1937, folder 1, box 2119, LA Board Records.

50 “Recommendations of the Superintendent, Adopted by the Board of Education at the Additional Regular Board Meeting,” May 31, 1938, folder 1, box 2119, LA Board Records.

51 “Standard Health and Physical Requirements for Teachers Sixty-Five Years of Age & Over,” April 28, 1938, folder 1, box 2119, LA Board Records.

52 Minutes, June 9, 1938, additional meeting, Elementary, High School, and Junior College Committee folder 1, box 2119, LA Board Records.

53 Minutes, June 9, 1938, Elementary, High School, and Junior College Committee, LA Board Records.

54 Minutes, June 9, 1938, Elementary, High School, and Junior College Committee, LA Board Records.

55 Minutes, June 9, 1938, Elementary, High School, and Junior College Committee, LA Board Records.

56 “Amendments to the Retirement Rules and Regulations Concerning the Compulsory Retirement Age,” Los Angeles City Schools Budget Division, Aug. 6, 1942, folder 1, box 2119, LA Board Records.

57 “Termination of Services of District Retirement System Members Ineligible for Retirement Benefits—Certificated Employees Age Sixty-Five or Older,” Communication No. 2-R, Budget Division, April 4, 1960, folder 3, box 1736, LA Board Records.

58 “Examination of Certificated Personnel Seventy Years of Age and Over,” informal notes from the Committee of the Whole meeting, July 6, 1936, folder 1, box 2119, LA Board Records.

59 Doncaster G. Humm to the Board of Education, Aug. 12, 1941, folder 3, box 1739, LA Board Records.

60 Doncaster G. Humm to the Board of Education, Aug. 12, 1941, LA Board Records.

61 Doncaster G. Humm to the Board of Education, Aug. 12, 1941, LA Board Records.

62 Minutes, Retirement Board, Aug. 21, 1941, folder 3, box 1739, LA Board Records.

63 Rehabilitation Act of 1973, 29 U.S.C. § 701 (1973).

64 Nancy Hicks, “Califano Signs Regulations to Ban Discrimination Against Disabled,” New York Times, April 29, 1977, 1.

65 “Subject: Modification of District Policies Concerning Employee Health Standards and the Employment of Handicapped Persons,” Superintendent of Schools to the Los Angeles City Board of Education, Communication No. 5, May 1, 1978, LA Board Records.

66 Douglas C. Baynton, “Disability and the Justification of Inequality in American History,” in Longmore and Umansky, The New Disability History: American Perspectives, 52.

67 Doncaster G. Humm to the Board of Education, Aug. 12, 1941, LA Board Records.