Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gxg78 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T15:41:33.919Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

From Single to Married: Feminist Teachers' Response to Family/Work Conflict in Early Twentieth-Century New York City

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Patricia A. Carter
Patricia A. Carter*
Affiliation:
Department of Educational Policy Studies at Georgia State University
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

In 1914, Henrietta Rodman, a high school English teacher and president of the newly formed Feminist Alliance in New York City, announced her group's plan to develop a twelve-story cooperative apartment house, based on the ideas of feminist philosopher Charlotte Perkins Gilman, that would meet the needs of professional working women like her, married with children. This research illustrates strategic activities teachers used in their attempts to reconceptualize wage-earning as the legitimate province of women, regardless of their marital or maternal status, and highlights the Feminist Alliance's contention that women's lack of economic self-determination lay at the root of female subordination.

Type
Articles
Information
History of Education Quarterly , Volume 56 , Issue 1 , February 2016 , pp. 36 - 60
Copyright
Copyright © 2016 History of Education Society 

References

1 “Feminists Start Rent Round Robin,” New-York Tribune, 13 April 1914, 5.Google Scholar

2 “Feminists Design a New Type Home,” New York Times, 5 April 1914.Google Scholar

3 Gilman, Charlotte Perkins, Women and Economics: The Economic Factor between Men and Women as a Factor in Social Evolution (Boston, MA: Small, Maynard, 1899); Gilman, Charlotte Perkins, What Diantha Did (New York: Charlton, 1910). In Gilman, Charlotte Perkins, “How Home Conditions React Upon the Family,” American Journal of Sociology 14, no. 5 (1909), 605. Gilman states, “We need homes in which mother and father will be equally free and equally bound, both resting together in its shelter and privacy, both working together for its interests. This requires structural and functional changes that shall eliminate the last of our domestic industries and leave a home that is no one's workshop.”Google Scholar

4 “Feminists Debate Plans for a House,” New York Times, 22 April 1914, 12.Google Scholar

5 Mrs. and Martin, John Mr., “The Woman Movement and the Baby Crop,” New York Times Magazine, 29 August 1915, 2, 7. For insights on Gilman's response to eugenics, particularly in this period, see Mary Ziegler, “Eugenic Feminism: Mental Hygiene, the Women's Movement, and the Campaign for Eugenic Legal Reform, 1990–1935,” Harvard Journal of Law and Gender 31, no. 1 (2008), 211–35. Rodman's view is varied: “Protest Despotic Action,” Evening Post (New York, NY), 16 November 1914, 8. For an alternative perspective from that presented by the Martins, see Emerick, Charles F., “College Women and Race Suicide,” Political Science Quarterly, 24, no. 2 (June 1909), 269–83.Google Scholar

6 Donahue, David M., “Rhode Island's Last Holdout: Tenure and Married Women Teachers at the Brink of the Women's Movement,” History of Education Quarterly 42, no. 1 (Spring 2002), 50–74; Redmond, Jennifer and Harford, Judith, “‘One Man, One Job': The Marriage Ban and the Employment of Women Teachers in Irish Primary Schools,” Paedagogica Historica 46, no. 5 (October 2010), 639–54; Ruane, Christine, “The Vestal Virgins of St. Petersburg: Schoolteachers and the 1897 Marriage Ban,” Russian Review 50, no. 2 (April 1991), 163–82; and Cavenaugh, Sheila L., “Female-Teacher Gender and Sexuality in Twentieth-Century Ontario, Canada,” History of Education Quarterly 45, no.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

7 These include but are not limited to: Oram, Alison, “‘Men must be educated and women must do it': The National Federation (later Union) of Women Teachers and Contemporary Feminism 1910–30.” Gender & Education 19, no. 6 (November 2007), 663–67; Leroux, Karen, “'Lady Teachers’ and the Genteel Roots of Teacher Organization in Gilded Age Cities,” History of Education Quarterly 46, no. 2 (June 2006), 164–91; López, Oresta, “Women Teachers of Post-Revolutionary Mexico: Feminisation and Everyday Resistance,” Paedagogica Historica 49, no. 1 (February 2013), 56–69; Carter, Patricia A., Everybody's Paid but the Teacher: The Teaching Profession and the Women's Movement (New York: Teachers College Press, 2002); Blount, Jackie, Fit to Teach: Same-Sex Desire, Gender, and School Work in the Twentieth Century (Albany, GA: State University of New York Press, 2004); Rousmaniere, Kate, Citizen Teacher: The Life and Leadership of Margaret Haley (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2005); Moore, Kristal Clemons, “I've Got to Do Something for My People: Black Women Teachers of the 1964 Mississippi Freedom Schools,” Western Journal of Black Studies 38, no. 3 (Fall 2014), 141–54; Nolan, Janet, Servants of the Poor: Teachers and Mobility in Ireland and Irish America (Notre Dame, IN: Notre Dame University Press, 2004); Weiler, Kathleen, Country Schoolwomen: Teaching in Rural California, 1850–1950 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998); and Ramsey, Sonya, Reading, Writing, and Segregation: A Century of Black Women Teachers in Nashville (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2008).Google Scholar

8 May, Elaine Tyler, Great Expectations: Marriage and Divorce in Post Victorian America (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1980); Antler, Joyce, “After College What? New Graduates and the Family Claim,” American Quarterly 32, no. 4 (October 1980), 409–34.Google Scholar

9 For background on race suicide see: Trent MacNamara, “Why ‘Race Suicide'? Cultural Factors in U.S. Fertility Decline, 1903–1908,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 44, no. 4 (Spring 2014), 475–508; Hacker, J. David, “Rethinking the ‘Early’ Decline of Marital Fertility in the United States,” Demography 40 (November 2003), 605–20; King, Miriam and Ruggles, Steven, “American Immigration, Fertility, and Race Suicide at the Turn of the Century,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 20, no. 3 (Winter 1990), 347–69; Palmieri, Patricia A., “From Republican Motherhood to Race Suicide: Arguments on the Higher Education of Women in the United States, 1820–1920,” in Educating Men and Women Together: Coeducation in a Changing World, ed. Lasser, Carol, 49–64 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); and Leonard, Thomas C., “Retrospectives: Eugenics and Economics in the Progressive Era,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 19, no. 4 (Fall 2005), 207–24.Google Scholar

10 Gordon, Linda, The Moral Property of Women: A History of Birth Control Politics in America (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2002).Google Scholar

11 Cookingham, Mary E., “Bluestockings, Spinsters and Pedagogues: Women College Graduates, 1865–1910,” Population Studies 38, no. 3 (November 1984), 360. This is a somewhat optimistic assessment of the single woman teacher's situation as Linda Van Ingen establishes in her assessment of the problem of retirement for single women teachers in “‘One Can't Live on Air': Sarah McComb and the Problem of Old-Age Income for Single Women Teachers, 1870s–1930s,” History of Education Quarterly 54, no. 2 (May 2014), 172–96. Kay Whitehead notes a preference for married women teachers emerged in the 1950s and 1960s when “the new sciences of sexology and psychology were reinforcing marriage as women's natural destiny and pathologizing older single women as ‘embittered, sexless or homosexual,”’ in “Vocation, career and character in early twentieth-century women teachers’ work in city schools,” History of Education 34, no. 6 (November 2005), 592. Kristina Llewellyn makes a similar case in Democracy's Angels: The Work of Women Teachers (Montreal, QC: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2012).Google Scholar

12 Blackwelder, Julia, Now Hiring: The Feminization of Work in the United States, 1900–1995 (College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, 1997), 79.Google Scholar

13 Ladd-Taylor, Molly, Mother-Work: Women, Child Welfare, and the State, 1890–1930 (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1995), 112; Rodman advocated a state subsidy to mothers, reasoning, “The child is a greater economic necessity to the state than it is to the parent; that is why, to avoid extinction the state must eventually, put a cash premium upon motherhood,” in Charles Henry Adams, “New York Day by Day,” Evening Independent (St. Petersburg), 17 April 1914, 3.Google Scholar

14 Carter, Patricia, “Building Houses for Teachers: Home, Hearth, and the General Federation of Women's Clubs,” in Everybody's Paid but the Teacher, 59–75. Most teacher housing scholarship focuses on rural or frontier women, such as Mary Hurlburt Cordier, “Prairie Schoolwomen: Mid 1850s to 1920s in Iowa, Kansas, and Nebraska,” Great Plains Quarterly 8, no. 2 (April 1988), 102–19; Kaufman, Polly Welts, Women Teachers on the Frontier (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985); Wyman, Andrea, Rural Women Teachers in the United States: A Sourcebook (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 1997); and Manning, Diane, Hill Country Teacher: Oral Histories from the One-Room School and Beyond (Boston, MA: Twayne Publishers, 1990).Google Scholar

15 Pieroth, Doris, Seattle's Women Teachers of the Interwar Years: Shapers of a Livable City (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 2004), 63–76.Google Scholar

16 Graves, Karen, “'So, You Think You Have a History?’ Taking a Q from Lesbian and Gay Studies,” History of Education Quarterly 52, no. 4 (November 2012), 468.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

17 Blount, Jackie, “From Exemplar to Deviant: Same-Sex Relationships among Women Superintendents, 1909–1976,” Educational Studies 35, no. 2 (April 2004), 107.Google Scholar

18 Carter, , Everybody's Paid but the Teacher. 27. Blount, Jackie, “From Exemplar to Deviant,” 107 agrees, finding that “many women teachers participated vigorously in such women's cultures” servine in “significant leadership positions in suffrage associations as well as other reform-minded organizations.” For more on the relationship between feminist activism and the profession in the early twentieth century, see Kate Rousmaniere, Citizen Teacher, and City Teachers: Teaching and School Reform in Historical Perspective (New York: Teachers College Press, 1997); Weiler, Kathleen, Country Schoolwomen (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998); and Murphy, Marjorie, Blackboard Unions: The AFT and the NEA, 1900–1980 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990).Google Scholar

19 Carter, , Everybody's Paid but the Teacher, 27, 29, and 32.Google Scholar

20 Eccles, Alice, “A Foreword for the Western Feminists,” San Francisco Chronicle (Sunday Magazine), 7 June 1914, 6.Google Scholar

21 Rodman, Henrietta, “What All Women Must Demand If They Want Equal Opportunities,” New York Call, 28 February 1915, 7.Google Scholar

22 “Wilson Asked to Take Stand on Suffrage,” The Sun (New York), 13 April 1914, 6.Google Scholar

23 “When Women Are Aliens,” Evening Post (New York), 4 May 1914, 4; “For Aid of Alien's Wives,” Evening Post (New York), 13 April 1914, 4; and “Bill Restores Rights,” Washington (DC) Post, 6 May 1914, 23.Google Scholar

24 Greeley-Smith, Nixola, “Rights for Women in All Lines to Be Decided by Merit Alone,” The Day Book (Chicago, IL), 7 May 1914, 10–11.Google Scholar

25 “Feminists Start Rent Round Robin,” New-York Tribune. Google Scholar

26 Fay-Smith, Laura, “That Feminist Paradise Palace,” New York Titties, 25 April 1915, 6; and “Socialism, Feminism, and Woman Suffrage,” Hudson (NY) Evening Register, 22 October 1915, 2.Google Scholar

27 Simmons, Christina, Making Marriage Modern: Women's Sexuality from the Progressive Era to World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009); and Simmons, Christina, “Women's Power in Sex Radical Challenges to Marriage in Early Twentieth Century United States,” Feminist Studies 29, no. 1 (April 2003), 169–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

28 Freedman, Estelle, “Separatism as Strategy: Female Institution Building and American Feminism, 1870–1930,” Feminist Studies 3 (October 1979), 512–29. On men's participation in Rodman's feminist community, see Delap, Lucy, The Feminist Avant-Garde: Transatlantic Encounters of the Early Twentieth Century (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 27–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

29 “Feminist Model Home,” New York Times, 14 May 1914, 6; “Housework for the Feminist Man,” Sun (New York), 13 May 1914, 6; Marshall, Marguerite Mooers, “New Style of Husband Helps the Wife Wash Dishes, Sweep and Make the Bed,” Evening World (New York), 14 May 1914, 4; and “Feminist Home Is Pure Fiction,” Sun (New York), 14 May 1914, 5.Google Scholar

30 “Teacher Mother Fight Arouses City's Interest,” New York Herald, 15 November, 1914, 6; “Rodman Writes Letter of Challenge: Asks Commissioner to Seek Teachers’ Opinions,” Evening Post (New York), 4 January, 1915, 4; “Mother-Teacher Appeals to Mayor,” New York Herald, 5 November, 1914, 20; “New Fight to Save Teacher Mothers,” New York Times, 1 October 1914, 5; “Teacher Mothers Win Court Decision,” New-York Tribune, 12 November 1913, 6; and “Woman Lawyer's Club to Fight Motherhood Battle,” New York Evening Telegram, 13 March 1913, 3. Rodman founded a second organization, the League for the Civic Service of Women, which also worked on these issues. Both organizations involved some of the same members and overlapped in interests and activities, especially around women teachers’ rights, with the exception of the feminist apartment house, which remained an Alliance project. For more on the League for the Civic Service of Women and deeper discussion of the married teacher and mother-teacher court cases see: Carter, Patricia A., “Henrietta Rodman and the Fight to Further Women's Economic Autonomy” in Women Educators, Leaders and Activists, 1900–1960, eds. Tanya, . Fitzgerald, and Smyth, Elizabeth M. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 152–78.Google Scholar

31 “Restoring the Family,” New Republic 1, no. 4 (November 1914), 8 states, “Life is to be made so unendurable for married teachers, they are to be compelled to make such heartbreaking sacrifices, that they will sooner or later accept defeat and allow themselves to be driven out of the school.” For more on the secret marriage strategy, see Carter, Everybody's Paid but the Teacher, 116–122.Google Scholar

32 “Education Board Plot, Charges Teacher Wife,” New-York Tribune, 20 October 1913, 9; “Aided Mrs. Edgell, Married Herself,” New York Times, 19 March 1913, 8; “Henrietta Rodman Defies the Board,” Brooklyn Daily Eagle, 19 March 1913, 8; “Married Teachers Find a Martyr,” Sun (New York), 19 March 1913, 6; “Silent Strike Teacher a Bride,” New York Herald, 19 March 1913, 22; “Teacher Admits She Was Married Feb. 15,” New York Press, 19 March 1913, 1; and “Weds Secretly to Fool School Board,” New-York Tribune, 19 March 1913, 1.Google Scholar

33 Martin, John, “The Married Teacher,” New Republic 1, no. 5 (December 1914), 23.Google Scholar

34 MacAdam, George, “Feminist Apartment House to Solve Baby Problem,” New York Times (Sunday Magazine), 24 January 1915, 9.Google Scholar

35 “Dignified US Census Backs Feminists Contention,” New-York Tribune, 2 August 1914, 9.Google Scholar

36 “Pleas for Teacher Mother,” The Sun (New York), 17 June 1914, 7.Google Scholar

37 “Maxwell Reports Mother-Teachers,” New York Times, 23 October 1913, 20.Google Scholar

38 “Teacher-Mothers Win Final Verdict,” New York Times, 12 January 1915, 1. See also Carter, Everybody's Paid but the Teacher, 116–22.Google Scholar

39 Beecher, Catharine E. and Beecher Stowe, Harriet, The American Woman's Home: or, Principles of Domestic Science… (New York: J. B. Ford, 1869), 457.Google Scholar

40 Carter, Everybody's Paid but the Teacher, 74.Google Scholar

41 Cromley, Elizabeth Collins, Alone Together: A History of New York's Early Apartments (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990), 11–12; Hawes, Elizabeth, New York, New York: How the Apartment House Transformed the Life of the City (1869–1930) (New York: Henry Holt, 1994), 188–214.Google Scholar

42 Packard, Esther, A Study of the Living Conditions of Self-Supporting Women in New York City (New York: Metropolitan Board of the Young Women's Christian Association, 1915).Google Scholar

43 Brooks, C. Robert, Report on the Committee on Teachers’ Salaries and the Cost of Living (Ann Arbor, MI: National Educational Association, 1913), 222–24; and Evenden, Edward S., Teachers’ Salaries and Salary Schedules in the United States, 1918–1919 (Washington, DC: National Education Association, 1919).Google Scholar

44 “Thousand Years Behind the Times,” Evening News (San Jose, CA), 1 September 1915, 2.Google Scholar

45 May, Vanessa H., Unprotected Labor: Household Workers, Politics, and Middle-Class Reform in New York, 1870–1940 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011); and Hunter, Jan H., How Young Ladies Became Girls: The Victorian Origins of American Girlhood (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, x2002).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

46 “Teacher-Mothers Attacked by Women,” Brooklyn Daily Eagle, 22 November 1913, 14.Google Scholar

47 Mrs. Dimeon Guilford, H., “Feminists Are Family Menace,” Washington (DC) Herald, 25 April 1915, 7. For similar critiques, see Fay-Smith, Laura, “That Feminist Paradise Palace” and “Perils of Feminism,” Indianapolis Star, 21 April 1914, 8; and Martin, Mrs. John, “Feminism Makes Males Drone in Beehive,” New York Times, 12 April 1914, Sunday Magazine 4, 11.Google Scholar

48 “Contest Over Mother-Teachers to Be Waged by Educators Today,” New York Herald, 12 March 1913, 6.Google Scholar

49 Marshall, Marguerite Mooers, “Wage Earning Mother Social Phenomenon Will Not Abandon Her Chosen Career,” Evening World (New York), 13 January 1915, 3.Google Scholar

50 Ibid.Google Scholar

51 MacAdam, , “Feminist Apartment House to Solve Baby Problem,” 9.Google Scholar

52 Adickes, Sandra E., To Be Young Was Very Heaven: Women in New York Before the First World War (New York: St. Martin's Griffin, 2000), 4, 74; Hayden, Dolores, The Grand Domestic Revolution: A History of Feminist Designs for American Homes, Neighborhoods, and Cities (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1982), 4; and Kimball, Meredith M., Feminist Visions of Gender Similarities and Differences (Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press, 1995), 43.Google Scholar

53 “Plans Montessori School to Be Started in Greenwich Village Oct. 1,” New-York Tribune, 14 September 1912, 8; Rodman, Henrietta, “If Children Are Taught to Follow Reason, Not Merely to Follow Tradition, There Will Be No More Wars, Declares Dr. Montessori,” New-York Tribune, 22 April 1915, 7; and Rodman, Henrietta, “Dr. Montessori Aims to Aid Poor,” New-York Tribune, 21 April 1915, 6.Google Scholar

54 Staring, Joroen F., “New Light on Marietta Johnson,” Journal of Education and Human Development 3, no. 3 (September 2014), 213–14.Google Scholar

55 Staring, Joren, Midwives of Progressive Education: Bureau of Educational Experiments, 1916–1919 (Nijmegan, The Netherlands: Integraal [Werkgroep Integrerende Weten-schapsbeoefening], 2013); Rodman, Henrietta, “Children Develop Their Own Ideas,” New-York Tribune, 17 March 1915, 3; and Rodman, Henrietta, “Libertarian Conduct of Fairhope School Even More Striking than That of Wirt System,” New-York Tribune, 31 August 1915, 5. See also Rodman, Henrietta, “How the Pestalozzi-Froebel Kindergarten Is Conducted in Berlin,” Kindergarten-Primary Magazine, June 1915, 313; Rodman, Henrietta, “Looks to Children to Revive Dancing,” New-York Tribune, 9 April 1915, 6; Rodman, Henrietta, “Garden Course at NYU Incalculable Value to Education of Children,” New-York Tribune, 14 August 1915, 5; and Rodman, Henrietta, “Museum Schools Offer Peculiar Kind of Summer Education,” New-York Tribune, 11 August 1915, 5.Google Scholar

56 “Modern Teacher Lets Pupils Do Teaching,” Toledo (OH) News-Bee, 4 April 1912, 16; “Girls Should Work: Must Be Able to Support Themselves, says Miss Rodman,” Syracuse (NY) Herald, 26 June 1912, 5; “Says Schools Create Sponges,” Oakland (CA) Tribune, 23 March 1913, 15; Rodman, Henrietta, “What Shall We Do With Our Daughters?” San Francisco Chronicle, 4 January 1914, 1; Rodman, Henrietta, “Miss Duncan Might Teach Educators,” New-York Tribune, 29 March 1915, 7; Rodman, Henrietta, “Pupils Study City Problems,” Milford (IA) Mail, 15 April 1915, 2; “Teachers Not Allowed to Think: One of Them Diagnoses Trouble with Present-Day Education,” Palm Beach (FL) Post, 23 October 1920, 8; Rodman, Henrietta, “Merits or Wirt System Praised,” New-York Tribune, 22 May 1915, 11; Rodman, Henrietta, “Twenty Thousand Children Want Jobs and Can't Get Them,” New York-Tribune, 3 July 1915, 5; and Rodman, Henrietta, “Defends Gary Training System,” New-York Tribune, 1 May 1915, 7.Google Scholar

57 Carter, Patricia A., “Guiding the Working Class Girl: Henrietta Rodman's Curriculum for the New Woman, 1913,” Frontiers: A Journal of Women's Studies 38, no. 1(2017) forthcoming. See also, “The First Anniversary of the Francisco Ferrer Association,” Mother Earth (July 1911), 157–60; “Anarchists Will Dedicate New Colony,” New Brunswick (NJ) Times, 9 April 1915, 1; “Training Teachers’ Class,” New York Call, 8 April 1911, 7; Rodman, Henrietta, “Wrong Vocational Education Feared,” New-York Tribune, 27 February 1915, 5; and “Teaching Girls New Things: It Is Called Vocational Guidance at Wadleigh High School,” New-York Tribune, 11 November 1911, 9.Google Scholar

58 “Babies Cared for at Fifty Cents a Day,” Syracuse (NY) Herald, 18 June 1914, 21. Rodman tried to get a state law passed to require all new buildings in the city to include rooftop nurseries and playgrounds, in Marguerite Mooers Marshall, “Nurseries on Apartment House Roofs, Latest Wrinkle in a Plan for a Home,” Evening World (New York), 27 May 1914, 3; “Nurseries on Flats Is Feminist Plea,” The Sun (New York), 26 May 1914, 11.Google Scholar

59 Bugbee, Emma, “Baby Garden of the Feminists Is Here,” New-York Tribune, 19 April 1914, Section III, 12.Google Scholar

60 For instance, to Rodman's contention that she and her daughter had “the greatest of fun,” A. H. C. responded that Rodman exhibited “No sense of duty, no sense of grave responsibility for that most wonderful of all flowers… the child,” in A. H. C., “Nature Slapped in the Face,” The Sun The Sun (New York), 29 May 1914, 10. Support for the feminist sentiment is seen in Marshall, Marguerite Mooers, “Wage-Earning Mother Social Phenomenon Will Not Now Abandon Chosen Career;” and Jennifer Scanlon, “Old Housekeeping, New Housekeeping, or No Housekeeping? The Kitchenless Home Movement and the Women's Service Magazine,” Journalism History 30, no. 1 (Spring 2004), 2–10.Google Scholar

61 Milholland, Inez, “The Changing Home,” McClure's March 1913, 212.Google Scholar

62 “Feminists Debate Plans for a House,” New York-Tribune, 22 April 1914, 12; “Keepless Housekeeping Is Feminist Apartment Secret,” New-York Tribune, 17 June 1914; and MacAdam, , “Feminist Apartment House to Solve Baby Problem,” 9.Google Scholar

63 The conversion from 1913 to 2013 dollars, in which $1 in 1913 equals $22.96 in 2013, was computed using the U.S. Inflation Calculator at http:www.usinflationcalculator.com/.Google Scholar

64 “Ready to Build Feminist Flats,” New-York Tribune, 13 May 1914, 4; “Babies No Bother in Feminist Apartment,” The Sun (New York), 17 June 1914, 9; “Apartment House Co-op the Latest,” New York Evening Call, 5 April 1914, 4; “Apartment for Women,” New-York Tribune, 16 April 1914, 16; and “Feminists to Build Apartment House,” New-York Tribune, 22 April 221914, 7.Google Scholar

65 “Keepless Housekeeping Is Feminist Apartment Secret.”Google Scholar

66 “Ready to Build Feminist Flats,” 4.Google Scholar

67 “Feminists to Hold Open Meeting,” New York Times, 18 October 1914, 3.Google Scholar

68 Perkins, George Walbridge and Bruère, Henry Jaromir, Report on the Teachers’ Retirement Fund, City of New York for the Commission on Pensions (New York: Trow Press, 1915), 36; and “Radical Reforms in Schools Proposed,” Evening Post (New York), 16 September 1915, 1, 3.Google Scholar

69 “Apartment House Co-op the Latest.”Google Scholar

70 Kelly, Florence Finch, “Co-operative Apartment Houses in New York,” The Independent, May 1908, 1139–42. Elevators were still a relatively new accouterment within the city's buildings and thus noted as a selling point.Google Scholar

71 “Feminists to Hold Open Meeting.”Google Scholar

72 Burgess, W. Randolph, Trends of School Cost (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1920), 90, 101, 111–12, 123.Google Scholar

73 Burgess, , Trends of School Cost, 57, 58, 62, 81–82, 83–84, 85, 110; and Lauck, W. Jett, Increase in Cost of Living and Prices, 1914 to 1920 (Washington, DC: US Railway Labor Board, 1920), 7 and 9.Google Scholar

74 For example, Rodman, Henrietta, “Teacher Asks Women to Judge Her Case,” New-York Tribune, 15 February 1915, 4; and Rodman, Henrietta, “Women to Defend Married Teacher,” New-York Tribune, 6 February 1915, 7.Google Scholar

75 Carter, , Everybody's Paid but the Teacher, 27, 29, 32.Google Scholar