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“Outthinking and Outflanking the Owners of the World”: A Historiography of the African American Struggle for Education

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 February 2017

Ronald E. Butchart
Ronald E. Butchart*
Affiliation:
College of Education, State University College at Cortland, New York
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Extract

W. E. B. DuBois once argued that the proper education for oppressed groups such as African Americans had a special, critical purpose. He knew, as have all serious educators since Socrates accepted his cup, that education was always and everywhere political. For the oppressed, the political role of schooling had to be aimed precisely at finding the means to end the oppression. In 1930, speaking before the graduating students at Howard University, he put the issue this way: “Let there be no misunderstanding about this, no easy going optimism. We are not going to share modern civilization just by deserving recognition. We are going to force ourselves in by organized far-seeing effort—by outthinking and outflanking the owners of the world today who are too drunk with their own arrogance and power successfully to oppose us, if we think and learn and do.” It is clear from his own life's work that to “think and learn and do”—the “outthinking and outflanking”—required schooling.

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Articles
Information
History of Education Quarterly , Volume 28 , Issue 3 , Fall 1988 , pp. 333 - 366
Copyright
Copyright © 1988 by the History of Education Society 

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References

1 DuBois, W. E. B., The Education of Black People: Ten Critiques, 1906–1960 ed. Aptheker, Herbert (New York, 1973), 77. The history of education is intimately related to all other areas of history and cannot be understood in isolation from political, social, economic, and institutional history. Nowhere is this clearer than in African American history, in which the social embeddedness of education is sharply illustrated. However, in order to keep this discussion within reasonable bounds, this essay and accompanying notes are limited to the scholarship specifically related to the history of black education, with a handful of exceptions.Google Scholar

2 For alternative periodization, see Franklin, Vincent P., “Introductory Essay: Changing Historical Perspectives on Afro-American Life and Education,” in New Perspectives on Black Educational History, ed. Franklin, Vincent P. and Anderson, James D. (Boston, 1978), 1–18; and Meier, August and Rudwick, Elliott, Black History and the Historical Profession, 1915–1980 (Urbana, Ill., 1986). Franklin relies on a traditional historiographic periodization; Meier and Rudwick are less concerned with changing interpretation than with the growth of black history. Both add important dimensions to the dialogue, much of which I have not sought to repeat in this essay.Google Scholar

3 Woodson, Carter G., The Education of the Negro Prior to 1861 … (1919; reprint, New York, 1968); DuBois, W. E. B., ed., The Negro Common School (Atlanta, Ga., 1901); Birnie, C. W., “Education of the Negro in Charleston, South Carolina, Prior to the Civil War,” Journal of Negro History 12 (Jan. 1927): 13–21; Jackson, Luther P., “Religious Instruction of Negroes, 1830–1860, with Special Reference to South Carolina,” Journal of Negro History 15 (Jan. 1930): 72–114; Vibert, Faith, “The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts: Its Work for the Negroes in North America before 1783,” Journal of Negro History 18 (Apr. 1933): 171–212; on postelementary education, see, e.g., Daniel, W. A., The Education of Negro Ministers (1925; reprint, New York, 1969); Clement, Rufus E., “The Church School as a Social Factor in Negro Life,” Journal of Negro History 12 (Jan. 1927): 5–12; Jackson, Reid E., “Rise of Teacher-Training for Negroes,” Journal of Negro Education 7 (Oct. 1938): 540–47; and DuBois, W. E. B. and Granville Dill, August, eds., The College-Bred Negro American (Atlanta, Ga., 1910); for informal agencies, see, e.g., Johnson, Charles S., “The Rise of the Negro Magazine,” Journal of Negro History 13 (Jan. 1928): 7–21; Porter, Dorothy B., “The Organized Educational Activities of Negro Literary Societies, 1828–1846,” Journal of Negro Education 5 (Oct. 1936): 555–76; Birnie, , “Education of the Negro in Charleston”; Edward Moorland, Jesse, “The Young Men's Christian Association among Negroes,” Journal of Negro History 9 (Apr. 1924): 127–38; Johnson, Campbell C., “Negro Youth and the Educational Program of the Y.M.C.A.,” Journal of Negro Education 9 (July 1940): 354–71; Cuthbert, Marion, “Negro Youth and the Educational Program of the Y.W.C. A.,” Journal of Negro Education 9 (July 1940): 363–71; few institutional biographies were written in this period, but see Francis Greenwood Peabody, Education for Life: The Story of Hampton Institution (Garden City, N.Y., 1918); and Jackson, Luther P., “The Origins of Hampton Institute,” Journal of Negro History 10 (Apr. 1925): 131–49; on education in the North, see also Carroll, J. C., “The Beginnings of Public Education for Negroes in Indiana,” Journal of Negro Education 8 (Oct. 1939): 649–58.Google Scholar

4 DuBois, W. E. B., The Souls of Black Folk (1903; reprint, New York, 1969), 64 (first quotation), 67, 71; idem, Negro Common School, 21–42, second quotation on 40; idem, Black Reconstruction in America, 1860–1880 (1935; reprint, Cleveland, 1964), 637–69. See also Jackson, Luther P., “The Educational Efforts of the Freedmen's Bureau and Freedmen's Aid Societies in South Carolina, 1862–1872,” Journal of Negro History 8 (Jan. 1923): 1–40; Kassel, Charles, “Educating the Slave—A Forgotten Chapter of Civil War History,” Open Court 41 (Apr. 1927): 239–56; Eggleston, G. K., “The Work of Relief Societies during the Civil War,” Journal of Negro History 14 (July 1929): 272–99.Google Scholar

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6 DuBois, Woodson, Taylor, and others documented segregation and exclusion, of course. But separation remained a minor issue in these studies, not a theme of significance. Savage, “Legal Provisions for Negro Schools in Missouri, 1865–1890,” 309–21; idem, “Legal Provisions for Negro Schools in Missouri, 1891–1935,” 335–44; and idem, “Early Negro Education in the Pacific Coast States,” Journal of Negro Education 15 (Spring 1946): 134–39, focused more fully on legal and legislative issues than most contemporary African American education historians; hence, his studies are among the few that make racial segregation a theme.Google Scholar

7 Even the few studies whose theme appears to be industrial education frequently do not provide rigorous histories of the idea or its effects. Peabody's Education for Life, for instance, is an extended panegyric.Google Scholar

8 Jesse Jones, Thomas, ed., Negro Education: A Study of the Private and Higher Schools for Colored People in the U.S. (Washington, D.C., 1917); DuBois, , Negro Common School, 42; see also Washington, Booker T. and DuBois, W. E. B., The Negro in the South … ([1907?]; reprint, New York, 1970): 102–3, 114. Jones, however, wrote largely in support of continued segregation.Google Scholar

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11 DuBois, , Souls of Black Folk 127; Daniel, , The Education of Negro Ministers, 28 and passim; Clement, “Church School as a Social Factor.”Google Scholar

12 DuBois, , Negro Common School 118.Google Scholar

13 Horace Fitchett, E., “The Influence of Claflin College on Negro Family Life,” Journal of Negro History 29 (Oct. 1944): 459; see, among others, Preston, Emmett D. Jr., “Development of Negro Education in the District of Columbia,” Journal of Negro Education 9 (Oct. 1940): 595–603; Preston, , “The Development of Negro Education in the District of Columbia, 1800–1860,” Journal of Negro Education 12 (Spring 1943): 189–98.Google Scholar

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15 Knight, Edgar W., “The ‘Messianic’ Invasion of the South after 1865,” School and Society, 5 June 1943, 647, 645. See also idem, “Reconstruction and Education in South Carolina,” South Atlantic Quarterly 18 (Oct. 1919): 350–64 and 19 (Jan. 1920): 55–66; idem, Public School Education in North Carolina (1916; reprint, New York, 1969): esp. 265; deRoulhac Hamilton, J. G., “The Freedmen's Bureau in North Carolina,” South Atlantic Quarterly 8 (Jan. 1909): 53–67 and (Apr. 1909): 154–63.Google Scholar

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21 See, among others, Alderson, William T. Jr., “The Freedmen's Bureau and Negro Education in Virginia “ North Carolina Historical Review 29 (Jan. 1952): 64–90; Lowe, W. A., “The Freedmen's Bureau and Education in Maryland,” Maryland Historical Magazine 47 (Mar. 1952): 29–39; Abbott, Martin, “The Freedmen's Bureau and Negro Schooling in South Carolina,” South Carolina Historical Magazine 57 (Apr. 1956): 65–81; Richardson, Joe M., “The Freedmen's Bureau and Negro Education in Florida,” Journal of Negro Education 31 (Fall 1962): 460–67.Google Scholar

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44 Institutional biographies include Jones, Edward A., Candle in the Dark Logan, Rayford W., Howard University: The First Hundred Years, 1867–1967 (New York, 1969); Bacote, Clarence A., The Story of Atlanta University: A Century of Service, 1865–1965 (Atlanta, Ga., 1969); Mann Bond, Horace, Education for Freedom: A History of Lincoln University, Pennsylvania (Lincoln University, Pa., 1976); Stanford Cozart, Leland, A Venture of Faith: Barber-Scotia College, 1867–1967 (Charlotte, N.C., 1976); Campbell, Clarence T. and Allan Rogers, Oscar Jr., Mississippi: The View from Tougaloo (Jackson, Miss., 1979); Zella, J. Patterson, Black, Langston University: A History (Norman, Okla., 1979); and Richardson, Joe M., A History of Fisk University, 1865–1946 (University, Ala., 1980). On other issues in higher education, see, e.g., John E. Fleming, The Lengthening Shadow of Slavery: A Historical Justification for Affirmative Action for Blacks in Higher Education (Washington, D.C., 1976); Shannon, Samuel H., “Land-Grant College Legislation and Black Tennesseans: A Case Study in the Politics of Education,” History of Education Quarterly 22 (Summer 1982): 139–57; Pearson, Ralph L., “Reflections on Black Colleges: The Historical Perspective of Charles S. Johnson,” History of Education Quarterly 23 (Spring 1983): 55–68. On black professional training and organizations, see Alfred A. Moss, Jr., The American Negro Academy: Voice of the Talented Tenth (Baton Rouge, La., 1981): 304; see also Summerville, James, Educating Black Doctors: A History of Me harry Medical College (University, Ala., 1983); Clark Hine, Darlene, “The Pursuit of Professional Equality: Meharry Medical College, 1921–1938, A Case Study,” in New Perspectives, ed. Franklin, and Anderson, , 173–92; Parker, Kellis E. and Stebman, Betty J., “Legal Education for Blacks,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 407 (May 1973): 144–55; Rae McNeil, Genna, “To Meet the Group Needs: The Transformation of Howard University School of Law, 1920–1935,” in New Perspectives, ed. Franklin, and Anderson, , 149–71; Perry, Thelma D., The History of the American Teachers Association (Washington, D.C., 1975); Middleton, Ernest J., “The Louisiana Education Association, 1901–1970,” Journal of Negro Education 47 (Fall 1978): 363–78.Google Scholar

45 Homel, , Down from Equality Schwartz, Bernard, Swann's Way: The Second Busing Case and the Supreme Court (New York, 1986); Pride, Richard A. and David Woodard, J., The Burden of Busing: The Politics of Desegregation in Nashville (Knoxville, Tenn., 1985); Metcalf, George R., From Little Rock to Boston: The History of School Desegregation (Westport, Conn., 1983); Weinberg, Meyer, A Chance to Learn: The History of Race and Education in the United States (Cambridge, Mass., 1977); Kluger, Richard, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America's Struggle for Equality (New York, 1976); Gerber, David A., “Education, Expediency, and Ideology: Race and Politics in the Desegregation of Ohio Public Schools in the Late Nineteenth Century,” Journal of Ethnic Studies 1 (Fall 1973): 1–31; Pieroth, , “With All Deliberate Caution,” 50–61; Morgan Kousser, J., “Making Separate Equal: Integration of Black and White School Funds in Kentucky,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 10 (Winter 1980): 399–428; Caughey, John, To Kill a Child's Spirit: The Tragedy of School Segregation in Los Angeles (Itasca, Ill., 1973); Hornsby, Alton Jr., “The Freedmen's Bureau Schools in Texas, 1864–1870,” Southwestern Historical Quarterly 76 (Apr. 1973): 397–417. Raymond Wolters, The Burden of Brown: Thirty Years of School Desegregation (Knoxville, Tenn., 1984), deals with segregation, but fits better within one of the possible postrevisionist camps described later than in a discussion of revisionism.Google Scholar

46 Aickin Rothschild, Mary, “The Volunteers and the Freedom Schools: Education for Social Change in Mississippi,” History of Education Quarterly 22 (Winter 1982): 401–20; Abney, Everett E., “A Comparison of the Status of Florida's Black Public School Principals, 1965–66/1975–76,” Journal of Negro Education 49 (Fall 1980): 398–406; Howie, Donald L. W., “The Image of Black People in Brown v. Board of Education,” Journal of Black Studies 3 (Mar. 1973): 371–84; Franklin, Vincent P., “Persistence of School Segregation in the Urban North,” Journal of Ethnic Studies 1 (Winter 1974): 51–68.Google Scholar

47 State studies include Mabee, Black Education in New York State; Russell, Lester F., Black Baptist Secondary Schools in Virginia, 1887–1957: A Study in Black History (Metuchen, N.J., 1981); Scott, John I. E., The Education of Black People in Florida (Philadelphia, 1974); Carper, James C., “The Popular Ideology of Segregated Schooling: Attitudes toward the Education of Blacks in Kansas, 1854–1900,” Kansas History 1 (Winter 1978): 254–65. Among urban studies, see Homel, Down from Equality; Franklin, Education of Black Philadelphia; Mohraz, , Separate Problem; June O. Patton, “The Black Community of Augusta and the Struggle for Ware High School, 1880–1899,” in New Perspectives, ed. Franklin and Anderson, 45–59.Google Scholar

48 Interracialism is central to Jacqueline Jones, Soldiers of Light and Love; Richardson, , Christian Reconstruction; McPherson, , Abolitionist Legacy; Rothschild, , “The Volunteers and the Freedom Schools”; Howe, Florence, “Mississippi's Freedom Schools,” Harvard Educational Review 35 (Spring 1965): 141–60. More critical studies include Butchart, Northern Schools, Southern Blacks, and Reconstruction; Harlan, , Booker T. Washington; Wolters, , The New Negro on Campus; Perkins, , “Quaker Beneficence and Black Control.” See note 45 for studies of segregation and desegregation.Google Scholar

49 Homel, , Down from Equality Weinberg, A Chance to Learn; Spivey, , Schooling for the New Slavery; Troen, , The Public and the Schools, 91–98; Fuller, Edmund, Prudence Crandall: An Incident of Racism in Nineteenth-Century Connecticut (Middletown, Conn., 1971), among others.Google Scholar

50 Wilkerson, , “Ghetto School Struggles,” 145; see also Butchart, , Northern Schools, Southern Blacks, and Reconstruction Wilson, , “Education as a Vehicle of Racial Control”; Fleming, John E., The Lengthening Shadow of Slavery; and citations to Anderson in notes 42 and 43.Google Scholar

51 Mohraz, , Separate Problem and studies cited in note 36.Google Scholar

52 Moss, , The American Negro Academy Franklin, , Education of Black Philadelphia; Webber, , Deep like the Rivers; Mabee, , Black Education in New York State; Sherer, , Subordination or Liberation?; Cozart, , A Venture of Faith. Google Scholar

53 Mabee, , Black Education in New York State.Google Scholar

54 Butchart, Ronald E., “Understanding the Retreat from Integration and Affirmative Action: Implications of Some Historical Parallels,” Peabody Journal of Education 57 (Oct. 1979), 1–9, sketches, tentatively, an interpretation of this period.Google Scholar

55 Wilkerson, , “Ghetto School Struggles,” 146.Google Scholar

56 Examples of the genre include Elizabeth Jacoway, Yankee Missionaries in the South: The Penn School Experiment (Baton Rouge, La., 1980): Jacqueline Jones, Soldiers of Light and Love; McPherson, , Struggle for Equality; McPherson, , Abolitionist Legacy; Foner and Pacheco, Three Who Dared; Homel, , Down from Equality; and Richardson, , Christian Reconstruction. Google Scholar

57 Authors loosely associated with this tendency include Franklin, Education of Black Philadelphia; Webber, , Deep like the Rivers; Blassingame, , The Slave Community; Blassingame, , Black New Orleans, 1860–1880; Mohraz, , Separate Problem; and Wolters, , New Man on Campus. Google Scholar

58 Among others, see Aptheker, “Negro College Students in the 1920s,” Science and Society 33 (Spring 1969): 150–67; Aptheker, , “Literacy, the Negro, and World War II,” Journal of Negro Education 15 (Fall 1946): 595–602; Anderson, all sources cited in notes 42 and 43; Butchart, , Northern Schools, Southern Blacks, and Reconstruction; Wilkerson, , “Ghetto School Struggles in Historical Perspective,” Science and Society, 33 (1969), 130–49; and, less successfully, Spivey, Schooling for the New Slavery. Google Scholar

59 This tendency is still embryonic, but can be detected in such general work as Nicholas Lemann, “The Origins of the Underclass,” Atlantic Monthly 257 (June 1986): 31–55, and 258 (July 1986): 54–68; and more specific studies such as Wolters, Burden of Brown; and Sowell, Thomas, Education: Assumptions versus History: Collected Papers (Stanford, Calif., 1986).Google Scholar