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Mercer's Belles and Sarmiento's Teachers: Female Pedagogues within Two Transcontinental Emigration Projects of the Nineteenth Century
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 04 February 2022
Abstract
Situating the endeavors of Asa Shinn Mercer and Domingo Faustino Sarmiento within the broader settler colonial histories of the US and Argentina, this study provides two cases in which men representing prominent settler groups in the Americas attempted to regulate via internal educational colonialism populations they considered divergent from the nations’ ideals. Both projects recruited women to serve as civilizing agents who would help align disparate groups with the desired standards of citizenship. The female participants, however, did not blindly conform to their leaders’ expectations of behavior, instead asserting their own will at key points during the projects’ execution. Examining the groups’ dynamics in tandem provides new examples of the gendered processes at play within the settler colonialist structures of two nineteenth-century American countries.
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- History of Education Quarterly , Volume 62 , Special Issue 1: Special Issue on International and Comparative Education , February 2022 , pp. 38 - 60
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- Copyright © 2022 History of Education Society
References
1 Since Mercer's undertaking took place nearly half a century before the Panama Canal opened, steamers traveling from New York to Seattle were obligated to sail past Argentina and around Cape Horn before heading north along the Pacific coast.
2 For studies on the inextricability between settler colonialism and gender processes, see Arvin, Maile, Tuck, Eve, and Morrill, Angie, “Decolonizing Feminism: Challenging Connections between Settler Colonialism and Heteropatriarchy,” Feminist Formations 25, no. 1 (Spring 2013), 8–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar; David Camfield, “Settler Colonialism and Labour Studies in Canada,” Labour / Le Travail 83 (Spring 2019), 147–72; Jacobs, Margaret D., White Mother to a Dark Race: Settler Colonialism, Maternalism, and the Removal of Indigenous Children in the American West and Australia, 1880–1940 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2009)Google Scholar; and Scott Lauria Morgensen, “Theorizing Gender, Sexuality, and Settler Colonialism: An Introduction,” in “Karangatia: Calling Out Gender and Sexuality in Settler Societies,” ed. Michelle Erai and Scott L. Morgensen, special issue, Settler Colonial Studies 2, no. 2 (2012), 2–22.
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8 For a deeper understanding of the role of education in the formation of the identity of the Western US, see Nancy Beadie et al., “Gateways to the West, Part I: Education in the Shaping of the West,” History of Education Quarterly 56, no. 3 (Aug. 2016), 418–44; Nancy Beadie et al., “Gateways to the West, Part II: Education and the Making of Race, Place, and Culture in the West,” History of Education Quarterly 57, no. 1 (Feb. 2017), 94–126; and Nash, Margaret A., “Entangled Pasts: Land-Grant Colleges and American Indian Dispossession,” History of Education Quarterly 59, no. 4 (Nov. 2019), 437–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
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10 Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, “Education in the Argentine Republic,” in Proceedings and Lectures of the National Teachers’ Association, the National Association of School Superintendents, and the American Normal School Association at their Annual Meetings Held in Indianapolis, Ind. August, 1866 (Albany: Office of the New York Teacher, 1866), 80, https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=miua.0677752.1866.001&view=1up&seq=86&q1=sarmiento.
11 Clarence B. Bagley, “‘The Mercer Immigration:’ Two Cargoes of Maidens for the Sound Country,” Quarterly of the Oregon Historical Society 5, no.1 (1904), 5; and “Mercer's Girls,” Washington Standard, Feb. 24, 1866. Looser interpretations of historical fact include Mercer's Belles, a collection of romance stories (Teri Harman, Linda Carroll-Bradd, and Heather B. Moore, Mercer's Belles [Lehi, Utah: Mirror Press, 2019]) and a television series, Here Come the Brides, which ran for two seasons on the ABC network from 1968 to 1970. The comedy series borrowed the conceit of a shipload of women arriving in Washington Territory in search of husbands.
12 For examples of such attitudes, see Charles Prosch, “A Good Wife,” Puget Sound Herald, October 22, 1858; and “The Scarcity of White Women,” Puget Sound Herald, October 22, 1859. For scholarly analyses of the White man– Native woman relationships in the early days of Western settlement, see Dee Brown, The Gentle Tamers: Women of the Old Wild West (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1981); and McManus, Sheila, Choices and Chances: A History of Women in the U.S. West (Wheeling, IL: Harlan Davidson, 2011), 73–103Google Scholar.
13 Roger Conant, The Cruise of the Continental or An Inside View of Life on the Ocean Wave, in Mercer's Belles: The Journal of a Reporter, ed. Lenna A. Deutsch, 2nd ed. (Pullman: Washington State University Press, 1992), 23–108.
14 Harriet Stevens, “A Journal of Life on the Steamer Continental Part 1,” Puget Sound Weekly, June 4, 1866, p. 3, and “Part 2,” June 11, 1866, p. 3. The second article was also reprinted in the Annals of Wyoming as “One of the Mercer Girls: A Journal of Life on the Steamer Continental,” 35, no. 2 (Oct. 1963), 213–28. Deutsch reprinted the first article in Mercer's Belles, 129–32, and Clarence B. Bagley republished selections from Stevens's accounts. See Bagley, “‘The Mercer Immigration,’” 1–24.
15 Engle, Flora Pearson, “The Story of the Mercer Expeditions,” Washington Historical Quarterly 6, no. 4 (1915), 225–37Google Scholar.
16 See Deutsch, Mercer's Belles.
17 Kerry Abrams, “The Hidden Dimension of Nineteenth-Century Immigration Law,” Vanderbilt Law Review 62, no. 5 (Nov. 2009), 1353–1418.
18 Luiggi, Alice Houston, Sesenta y cinco valientes: Sarmiento y las maestras norteamericanas (Buenos Aires: Editorial Agora, 1959)Google Scholar. An English-language version was published after her death: 65 Valiants (Gainesville, University of Florida Press, 1965). In the footnotes of her article Karen Leroux indicates that her research brought the number of total participants to over seventy, a number Luiggi also mentions at one point, despite the title of her book. See Leroux, “‘Money Is the Only Advantage’: Reconsidering the History of Gender, Labor, and Emigration among US Teachers in the Late Nineteenth Century,” International Labor and Working-Class History, no. 87 (Spring 2015), 207n3 and 209n36.
19 Crespo, Julio, Las maestras de Sarmiento (Buenos Aires: Grupo Abierto, 2007), 63–64 and 306Google Scholar. Since Crespo's book is bilingual, all citations include two page numbers. The first is the Spanish version of the text; the second is the English translation.
20 See Luiggi, Alice Houston, “Some Letters of Sarmiento and Mary Mann 1865–1876, Part I,” Hispanic American Historical Review 32, no. 2 (May 1952), 187–211CrossRefGoogle Scholar; “Part II,” no. 3 (Aug. 1952), 347–75; and Velleman, Barry L., “My Dear Sir” Mary Mann's Letters to Sarmiento (1865–1881) (Buenos Aires, Argentina: ICANA, 2001)Google Scholar.
21 While Sarmiento embraced the terms “civilization and barbarism,” Nicolas Shumway notes, “He did not invent them. They were already in Argentine political discourse at least as early as the Rividavians [1820s].” See Shumway, The Invention of Argentina (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 90. Marta B. Rodríguez Galán examines how Sarmiento's understanding of culture as equating to European and US civilization informed his educational policy in Argentina. See Galán, “La conceptualización de la cultura en la obra de Sarmiento e implicaciones en su política educativa,” Espéculo: Revista de estudios literarios (Madrid: Universidad Complutense, 2005), http://www.ucm.es/info/especulo/numero29/sarmient.html. Evan C. Rothera and Georgette Magassy Dorn situate Sarmiento's educational policies within a Pan-American liberal perspective. See Rothera, “Our South American Cousin: Domingo F. Sarmiento and Education in Argentina and the United States,” in Reconstruction in a Globalizing World, ed. David Prior (New York: Fordham University Press, 2018), 21–49; and Dorn, “Sarmiento, the United States, and Public Education,” in Sarmiento and His Argentina, ed. Joseph T. Criscenti (London: Lynne Rienner, 1993), 77–89. Karen Leroux separates Sarmiento's project from other “Americanization” initiatives that the US imposed on other countries. See Leroux, “Sarmiento's Self-Strengthening Experiment,” in Teaching America to the World and the World to America: Education and Foreign Relations since 1870, ed. Richard Garlitz and Lisa Jarvinen (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 51–71. Noel F. McGinn asserts that while Sarmiento believed universal education to be the driving force of Argentine modernity, in reality its economic effect was minimal. See McGinn, “The Failure of Modernization Theory in Nineteenth-Century Argentina,” in Sarmiento and His Argentina, 131–42.
22 Jennie E. Howard, In Distant Climes and Other Years (Buenos Aires: The American Press, 1931). Mónica Szurmuk contextualizes Howard's experience within Sarmiento's plan to wrest the educational system from the grip of the Catholic Society of Beneficence. See Szurmuk, “Traveling/Teaching/Writing: Jennie Howard's In Distant Climes and Other Years,” in Women in Argentina: Early Travel Narratives, ed. Mónica Szurmuk (Gainesville, University of Florida Press, 2000), 78–86.
23 Julyan G. Peard, An American Teacher in Argentina: Mary Gorman's Nineteenth-Century Odyssey from New Mexico to the Pampas (Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 2016).
24 See Leroux, “Money.” For an analysis of the economic focus of teaching associations formed in nineteenth-century America, see also Leroux, Karen, “‘Lady Teachers’ and the Genteel Roots of Teacher Organization in Gilded Age Cities,” History of Education Quarterly 46, no. 2 (Summer 2006), 164–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
25 “Steilacoom Bachelors,” Puget Sound Herald, March 2, 1860, 2.
26 Woods, Lawrence, Asa Shinn Mercer: Western Promoter and Newspaperman, 1839–1917 (Spokane, WA: Arthur H. Clark, 2003), 19–22Google Scholar.
27 In spite of his efforts to make the university successful, Mercer was unable to prevent the institution from closing briefly in 1863. The Puget Sound Herald in March of that year hinted that Mercer's mismanagement caused a dramatic drop in enrollment, a claim he denied and cited as “libel” two issues later. See Puget Sound Herald, March 12 and 26, 1863. At the end of the following month, the same paper announced a reopening of the school under a new president. See Puget Sound Herald, April 30, 1863. Soon after, Mercer left for the East on his first recruitment voyage.
28 Bagley, “‘The Mercer Immigration,’” 17.
29 “Female Emigration: Women Colonizing the Far West,” New York Times, Sept. 30, 1865, p. 8.
30 Bagley, “‘The Mercer Immigration,’” 8.
31 Mercer, “Mr. Mercer's Emigration Scheme,” 5. Describing Mercer as a “cagey spin-doctor,” Abrams details the financial scheming and fraud Mercer committed during his second trip, including overbooking the ship, taking people's money with promises he could not possibly keep, and taking passenger fares and then neglecting to notify them of the ship's departure. See Abrams, “Hidden Dimension,” 1369–74.
32 In July, Mercer claimed he would be returning with three hundred “war orphans,” and exhorted Seattle citizens to be prepared to receive the women in their houses as they settled into their new city. See Bagley, “‘The Mercer Immigration,’” 10. The New York Times published an article on September 30, stating that Mercer would be setting sail the following month with “seven hundred young women, thirty or forty families and twenty young men.” See “Female Emigration,” New York Times, September 30. Harper's Weekly placed the number at four hundred. See Harper's Weekly, “Emigration to Washington Territory of Four Hundred Women on the Steamer ‘Continental,’” with drawing by A. R. Waud, 1866, pp. 8–9.
33 For a fairly detailed biography of Sarmiento, see Bunkley, Allison Williams, The Life of Sarmiento (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1952)Google Scholar.
34 While in self-imposed exile under the regime of Juan Manuel de Rosas, Sarmiento joined the faculty of Philosophy and Humanities at the University of Chile and established the first normal school of Latin America in 1842.
35 He explicitly developed these ideas in his 1845 fictionalized biography Facundo: Civilization and Barbarism. I agree with Gott's assertion that Sarmiento's adherence to presenting the country's development as a battle between “civilization and barbarism” is rooted in a racist settler colonialist mentality. See Gott, “Latin America,” 274.
36 Sarmiento as quoted in Bunkley, The Life of Sarmiento, 191.
37 Salvatore notes that into the twentieth century, “intellectuals, borrowing from the tradition of the generation of 1837, managed to erase the Indian and the gaucho from the space of the nation. To the extent that this textual operation proved successful, the works of these intellectuals constituted Argentina as a white, European nation.” See Salvatore, “The Unsettling Location,” 779.
38 Gott, “Latin America,” 286.
39 Bunkley, The Life of Sarmiento, 288; Crespo, Las maestras de Sarmiento, 6 and 273.
40 Velleman, “My Dear Sir,” 3. Sarmiento had talked to Horace in French with his wife, Mary, serving as interpreter. The correspondence of Sarmiento and Peabody Mann was at first in English via his secretary, Bartolomé Mitre. Back in Argentina, his letters were usually in Spanish.
41 Longfellow simultaneously impressed Sarmiento with his Spanish language skills and disappointed him with his ignorance of literature from the Southern Cone, which Sarmiento attempted to remedy by giving him several books by Argentine authors. See Rockland, Michael A., “Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and Domingo Faustino Sarmiento,” Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 12, no. 2 (April 1970), 271–79CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
42 Guerrero, Cesare H., Mujeres de Sarmiento (Buenos Aires: Artes Gráficas Bartolomé U. Chiesino, 1960), 257–64Google Scholar.
43 Domingo F. Sarmiento, Facundo: Life in the Times of the Argentine Tyrants, or, Civilization and Barbarism, trans. Mary Peabody Mann (New York: Hurd and Houghton, 1868), https://catalog.hathitrust.org/api/volumes/oclc/1999764.html.
44 Normal schools of the nineteenth century US were state-run teacher-training colleges for elementary school teachers.
45 Sarmiento, Obras completas, vol. 29, Ambas Américas (Buenos Aires: Mariano Moreno, 1899), 146. All translations are my own unless otherwise noted.
46 Beecher, Catharine, The Duty of American Women to Their Country (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1845), 74Google Scholar. Allison Speicher notes that in her first publication, Suggestions Respecting Improvements in Education, Beecher called for women to take up pedagogical arms in defense of education as a means to a civilized society. See Speicher, Allison, “Catherine Beecher Educates the West,” Connecticut Explored 15, no. 1 (2017), 33Google Scholar.
47 Masiello indicates that in both nineteenth-century United States and Argentina, women writers and activists promoted the power of domestic feminism to shape national identity. See Masiello, Between Civilization and Barbarism, 64–65.
48 Andrea Turpin delineates between two differing pedagogical ideologies inspiring Protestant reformers in the first half of nineteenth-century America. While both advocated for a common education that incorporated spirituality, morality, and knowledge, Beecher and the Manns followed liberal pedagogical principles while Zilpah Grant and her colleague Mary Lyon, who founded the Mount Holyoke Female Seminary in 1837, adhered to more religiously evangelical tenets. See Turpin, A New Moral Vision: Gender, Religion, and the Changing Purposes of American Higher Education, 1837–1917 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2016), 24.
49 For a detailed description of the National Board's project, with testimony from participants, see Kaufman, Polly Welts, Women Teachers on the Frontier (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1984)Google Scholar; and Speicher, “Catharine Beecher.”
50 “Governor Andrew's Missionary Ship,” Boston Daily Evening Transcript, Jan. 19, 1866, p. 1. The article also describes Sarmiento's efforts to recruit North American teachers to Argentina and translates into English the letter he wrote to Chilean newspapers galvanizing its citizens in Lota to entice the schoolteachers to stay in South America rather than continue on their voyage with Mercer.
51 Velleman, “My Dear Sir,” 86.
52 Address Delivered at the Opening of the State Normal School, Winona, Minnesota by Edward D. Neill and John Ogden with a Report on the Course of Instruction, and Other Documents (Saint Paul, MN: Pioneer Printing, 1860), 31.
53 Leroux, “Money,” 199.
54 Speicher, “Catharine Beecher,” 34.
55 Mercer, “Mr. Mercer's Emigration Scheme.”
56 For a detailed analysis of the social and legal implications of intermarriage between White settlers and Native women in the western territories, see Abrams, “Hidden Dimension,” 1409–13.
57 Mercer, “Mr. Mercer's Emigration Scheme.”
58 Genova, Thomas, “Sarmiento's Vida de Horacio Mann: Translation, Importation, and Entanglement,” Hispanic Review 82, no. 1 (Winter 2014), 32CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
59 Velleman, “My Dear Sir,” 56. The women who taught during Reconstruction were not compensated, as they were considered volunteers serving a patriotic duty. Contrastingly, the question of pay was essential to the women traveling to the West and Argentina.
60 “Governor Andrew's Missionary Ship.”
61 In a letter to Sarmiento on March 21, 1869, Peabody Mann shows a preference to Edward Allen as candidate for Superintendent of Schools over J. P. Wickersham of Pennsylvania because Wickersham “probably . . . is not so imbued with New England educational views” (Velleman, “My Dear Sir,” 245–46).
62 See Crespo, Las maestras de Sarmiento, for a brief biography of most of the participants, as well as a list of the schools in Argentina that had North American teachers or directors.
63 “Where the Lynch law had reigned, thousands of buffalo had wandered and Indians had scalped, and today is the seat of the most stupendous creations of human intelligence.” Sarmiento, Ambas Américas, 144. [Here, Lynch law refers to the West's method of justice wherein perceived criminals were summarily tried and executed without due process.]
64 As an example, see Sarmiento's description of Chicago that parallels the Midwestern plains with the pampa and Lake Michigan with the Río de la Plata. Sarmiento, Ambas Américas, 186–87. He was not the only one to see parallels between these two regions. North American investors and entrepreneurs often attempted to apply the same principles for economic development to Argentina as those that had worked at home. See Peard, An American Teacher, 146–48.
65 Sarmiento, Ambas Américas, 146.
66 Sarmiento, Domingo Faustino, North and South America: A Discourse Delivered before the Rhode Island Historical Society, December 27, 1865, by His Excellency Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, Argentine Minister to the United States (Providence, RI: Knowles, Anthony & Co., 1866), 43Google Scholar.
67 Szurmuk, “Traveling/Teaching/Writing,” 80. Subsequent administrations would see a backlash by the Church that led to a small contingent of Catholic teachers arriving to lead schools in conservative cities.
68 Masiello, Between Civilization and Barbarism, 54.
69 Engle, “The Story of the Mercer Expeditions,” 232.
70 He also used the terms “little school marms,” “girls,” and occasionally the more neutral “ladies.” Conant, Cruise of the Continental.
71 Susan Armitage, foreword to Mercer's Belles, viii.
72 Stevens, “A Journal of Life on the Steamer Continental Part 1.”
73 Engle, “The Story of the Mercer Expeditions,” 226–28.
74 Conant, Cruise of the Continental, 39.
75 Armitage, foreword to Mercer's Belles, xi.
76 Stevens, “A Journal of Life on the Steamer Continental Part 1.”
77 Leroux, “Money,” 187.
78 Engle claimed that Mercer enticed candidates with promises of large teaching salaries in “real California gold.” Engle, “The Story of the Mercer Expeditions,” 225–26.
79 Crespo, Las maestras de Sarmiento, 38 and 289.
80 Velleman, “My Dear Sir,” 55.
81 Crespo, Las maestras de Sarmiento, 39 and 289.
82 Leroux, “Money,” 193.
83 Practically speaking, healthy schoolteachers were also less likely to succumb to illness while undergoing a long journey.
84 Velleman, “My Dear Sir,” 87.
85 Sarmiento, North and South, 44. See also Sarmiento, “Education in the Argentine Republic,” 80.
86 Leroux, “Money,” 195.
87 Howard, In Distant Climes, 16.
88 Sarah Chamberlin Eccleston, Diary and Journal, 1864–1916, p. 152, https://digital.libraries.psu.edu/digital/collection/chamberlin/id/81 .
89 Leroux, “Money,” 194.
90 Sarmiento, Ambas Américas, 211.
91 Leroux, “Money,” 203.
92 Engle, “The Story of the Mercer Expeditions,” 231.
93 Conant, Cruise of the Continental, 47–48. After that rejection, Mercer successfully courted Annie E. Stephens on the journey, and they were married in July of that same year. See Bagley, “‘The Mercer Immigration,’” 19.
94 Conant, Cruise of the Continental, 40–41.
95 Conant, Cruise of the Continental, 51.
96 “Governor Andrew's Missionary Ship.”
97 In Sarmiento's original letter, he cited seven hundred teachers, not the six hundred translated by the Boston Evening Transcript (see Sarmiento, Ambas Américas, 78). He got the amount of seven hundred from the New York Times article “Female Emigration.”
98 “Governor Andrew's Missionary Ship.” Leroux notes, “Ideologies of gender, class, and nation building downplayed these teachers’ identities as workers and mystified teaching as a gendered, benevolent, and patriotic calling.” Leroux, “Money,” 190.
99 Stevens, “A Journal of Life on the Steamer Continental Part 2.” Leroux demonstrates that for the teachers who later undertook Sarmiento's project, travel abroad also induced a profound awareness of class distinctions and access to opportunities not afforded them at home: “Such genteel sociability en route to Argentina contributed to teachers’ hopes that migration would yield social and economic opportunities, perhaps transforming them into the expatriate ambassadors of education that Sarmiento and Mann envisioned.” Leroux, “Money,” 198.
100 Conant, Cruise of the Continental, 89n13.
101 Conant, Cruise of the Continental, 79.
102 Conant, Cruise of the Continental, 89n13.
103 The degree of barbarity ascribed to a place seems to have much to do with its remoteness from cultural centers. Washington Territory was also deemed inappropriate by the Californians, as Stevens relates: “There was no change in the clamor against Washington Territory. It daily increased. The friends of the ladies assured us in the most positive manner, that Puget Sound was the last place in the world for women, and offered all sorts of inducements to remain.” Stevens, “A Journal of Life on the Steamer Continental Part 1.”
104 Conant, Cruise of the Continental, 87.
105 Conant, Cruise of the Continental, 87.
106 Shumway, The Invention of Argentina, 252–53. Sarmiento would lose his only son, Dominguito, to this war in 1866.
107 As quoted in Bunkley, The Life of Sarmiento, 448.
108 Crespo, Las maestras de Sarmiento, 241 and 400; and Leroux, “Sarmiento's Self-Strengthening Experiment,” 64. For an analysis of Sarmiento's Pan-American liberal perspective, see Rothera, “Our South American Cousin.”
109 Leroux, “Sarmiento's Self-Strengthening Experiment,” 66.
110 Leroux, “Money,” 192.
111 See Velleman, “My Dear Sir,” 10–11; and Crespo, Las maestras de Sarmiento, 43 and 291, as well as 58–59 and 300 for more about Doggett's role in recommending teachers to Sarmiento.
112 Peard, An American Teacher, 153–55.
113 Peard, An American Teacher, 157–58.
114 Peard, An American Teacher, 159. Crespo also mentions this anecdote. See Las maestras de Sarmiento, 86 and 313. For an examination of Juana Manso's contributions to Argentine education, see Peard, Julyan G., “Enchanted Edens and Nation-Making: Juana Manso, Education, Women and Trans-American Encounters in Nineteenth-Century Argentina,” Journal of Latin American Studies 40, no. 3 (Aug. 2008), 453–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
115 Luiggi, “Some Letters, Part II,” 357.
116 Crespo, Las maestras de Sarmiento, 213 and 385; and Bunkley, The Life of Sarmiento, 467.
117 Crespo, Las maestras de Sarmiento, 241 and 401.
118 Alex Beattie, “The Cuban Annex: New Paltz's Place in Latin American History,” Observer SUNY New Paltz, Winter/Spring 1986, p. 7.
119 For more on this initiative, see “The Harvard Summer School for Cuban Teachers,” http://library.harvard.edu/university-archives/featured-item/8_CubanTeachers. See also Eells, Walter Crosby, “An Episode in International Education: The Cuban Expedition to the United States,” Journal of Higher Education 34, no. 2 (Feb. 1963), 67–72Google Scholar; and Jarvinen, Lisa, “Educating the Sons of the Revolution: The Cuban Educational Association, 1898–1901,” in Teaching America to the World and the World to America: Education and Foreign Relations since 1870, ed. Garlitz, Richard and Jarvinen, Lisa (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 73–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar.