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A Case Study in the Cultural Origins of a Superpower: Liberal Individualism, American Nationalism, and the Rise of High School Life, A Study of Cleveland's Central and East Technical High Schools, 1890–1918

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 February 2017

Patrick J. Ryan
Patrick J. Ryan*
Affiliation:
King's University College at the University of Western Ontario
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Extract

At the beginning of the twentieth century about one in twenty American teenagers graduated from high school; by mid century over half of them did so; and today six of seven do. Along with this expansion in graduation, the experiences of high schooling became more significant. Though diversity existed at the school level, by the interwar period most high schools offered courses in “higher” academic subjects (literature, mathematics, and ancient and foreign languages), while they gave large numbers of students a chance to practice music, drama, and other fine arts. Business leaders and educators developed programs in technical-skill training. Courses in household economics, personal hygiene, and sex and reproduction appeared as well. A few schools operated with two shifts: day and night Many maximized their capacity by rotating students between newly constructed gymnasiums, stadiums, fields, swimming pools, showers, cafeterias, laundries, machine shops, laboratories, performance halls, and libraries. Some provided up-to-date diagnostic and preventative medical and psychological services. Others developed vocational guidance. Nearly all established relationships with juvenile justice and youth custody agencies. More than any other institution, the increasingly comprehensive high schools of the twentieth-century redefined the social lives of American youths through teams, clubs, bands, and groups engaged in a long list of contests, games, performances, and other events. Early in the century extracurricular activities began to rival formal class work as the primary focus of secondary schooling. Today there is a joke told from Ohio to Texas, funny for its sad truth. Q: How do you pass a school levy? A: Put football on the chopping-block.

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Articles
Information
History of Education Quarterly , Volume 45 , Issue 1 , Spring 2005 , pp. 66 - 95
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Copyright © 2005 by the History of Education Society 

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References

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11 See The Central (1905): 61–62, 66–68. Reese, William J. Origins of the American High School (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995): 129–131.Google Scholar

12 On the name “Belfry Owl” see The Central (1905): 22. “A Gift for Central High” CHSM v. 1, no. 1 (March 1900): 26.Google Scholar

13 On the progressive approach toward moral education see McClellan, B. Edward Schools and the Shaping of Character: Moral Education in America, 1607–Present (Eric Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social Science Education and the Social Development Center, Indiana University, 1992): 51–76. The Central (1905): 61–62, 66–68; “Senior Class,” CHSM v. 1, no. 1 (March 1900): 24–25; The Central (1905): 78Google Scholar

14 Although East Technical had a more occupational focus, it was not a lesser high school for working-class youths during its early years. Judging from the yearbooks, photographs, and student writings in the three decades prior to 1920, both schools were populated by white youths carrying a notable proportion of Germanic names coming from households with employed fathers in business, the professions, and the skilled trades. In his memoir, Langston Hughes, who was a former student at Central High School, emphasized that just prior to 1920 a significant number of Catholic and Jewish youths of European-born parents had made their way into the school. Langston Hughes, The Big Sea: An Autobiography (New York: Hill and Wang, 1940): 30. Yearbooks suggest that this trend did not redefine the student population at these schools until well into the twenties. The Scarab v. 2, no. 1 (May 1911): 1; “Athletics,” The Scarab v. 1, no. 1 (June 1909): 16–17; CHSM v. 1, no. 4 (June 1900): 32; CHSM v. 5, no. 3 (December 1903): 15; CHSM v. 2, no. 2 (November 1900): 21–24; CHSM v. 1, no. 2 (April 1900): 22–23.Google Scholar

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17 Quote is from Gutowski, “Student Initiative,” 55. CHSM v. 1, no. 1 (March 1900): 24–25; CHSM v. 2, no. 2 (November 1900): 16–20.Google Scholar

18 The June Bug (1911): 189. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, U.S. high schools and colleges introduced this term first in the early twentieth century. Whether they originated with them, they are certainly indicative of this type of schooling. Yearbooks from the period generally have a class poem or history that emphasized the development of students by class promotion. A poem written by an unknown student repeated the theme in CHSM, Commencement Number (May 1916): 52–54. “TO THE SENIORS; What were you first?; An infant meet; What were you once?; A flatlet meek; What were you next?; A sophomore smart; What were you then?; A junior sharp; What were you last?; A senior tall; What will you be?; Nothing at all“ Also see CHSM (June 1909): 22–23; The June Bug (1913): 11–67.Google Scholar

19 The subordination of the Psi Omega took three full years. See the Central Monthly -Commencement Number v. 1, no. 4 (June 1900): 17–19, 20–31. Class of ‘04 — Central High School: Its Book, 26–41; CHSM v. 1, no. 1 (March 1900): 23; CHSM v. 5, no. 7 (April 1904): 16.Google Scholar

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21 The participation and leadership figures are based on a sample of about 1,700 seniors at both schools between 1904 and 1945. See Patrick J. Ryan, “Shaping Modern Youth” (1998): 296–306.Google Scholar

22 CHSM v. 5, no. 2 (November 1903): 21; The Central (1905): 79; CHSM v. 1, no. 1 (March 1900): 29; DeWitt, Sutherland “A Significant Score,” CHSM v. 5, no. 2 (November 1903): 7–9.Google Scholar

23 See note 22. For other studies that show a similar gender division of class leadership see Ueda, Avenues to Adulthood, 121; Fass, Outside In, 73–111.Google Scholar

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25 Comacchio, “Inventing the Extracurriculum,” 42. Fitch, Christina “The Girls’ Gym Work,” The June Bug (1913): 116–117; Baldwin, Martha and Heidtman, Helen “Girls’ Athletics,” CHSM, Commencement Number (1915): 31, 66. On the gender dynamics of basketball for young women during the era, see Pamela Dean, “‘Dear Sisters’ and ‘Hated Rivals': Athletics and Gender at Two New South Women's Colleges, 1893–1920,” Journal of Sports History 24 (Fall 1997): 341–357.Google Scholar

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32 The Weekly Scarab: v. 1, no. 3 (October 18, 1917): 1; v. 1, no. 4 (October 25, 1917): 2; v. 1, no. 2 (October 11, 1917): 2; v. 1, no. 1 (October 4, 1917): 1; v. 1, no. 22 (March 21, 1918): 1; v. 1, no. 23 (March 28, 1918): 1.Google Scholar

33 CHSM, June (June 1917): 44.Google Scholar

34 The Weekly Scarab: v. 1, no. 15 (January 31, 1918): 1, 4; v. 1, no. 24 (April 4, 1918): 1.Google Scholar

35 Troyer v. State, Ohio State Reports, decided June 1918.Google Scholar

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