Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-xbtfd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-03T02:50:10.538Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Anticommunism and Academic Freedom: Walter C. Eells and the “Red Purge” in Occupied Japan

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 February 2017

Ruriko Kumano*
Affiliation:
University of Hawaii at Manoa College of International Relations at Nihon University, Japan

Extract

In August 1945, Imperial Japan surrendered to the Allied Powers. From September 1945 to April 1952, the United States–the most dominant power among the victorious nations–occupied the defeated country.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © 2010 History of Education Society 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Myojin, IsaoReddo paji kenkyu no igi–Shiso ryosin no jiyu o meguru genkyo kara [Special Significance of the Study on the Red Purge in the Postwar Period of Japan: In Relation to the Present Condition of ‘Freedom of Thought and Conscience'],Kusbiro Ronshu 38 (2006): 72, 81.Google Scholar

2 Henceforward, the controversy over Eells's speeches is referred to as “the Eells case.”Google Scholar

3 For example, Ienaga, Saburo Daigaku no jiyu no rekishi [History of University Freedom], 2nd ed. (1962; repr., Tokyo: Hanawa shobo, 1965), 111–12; Ikazaki, Akio Daigaku no jichi no rekishi [History of University Autonomy] (1965; repr., Tokyo: Shin nihon shuppansha 1968), 114–17; Tokiomi, Kaigo and Terasaki, Masao, Daigaku kyoiku [Higher Education] (Tokyo: Tokyo daigaku shuppankai, 1969), 29; Suzuki, Eiichi Kyoiku Gyosei [Educational Administration] (Tokyo: Tokyo daigaku shuppankai, 1970), 80–85.Google Scholar

4 Ienaga, Daigaku no jiyu no rekishi; Ikazaki, Daigaku no jichi no rekishi; Kaigo, Tokiomi and Terasaki, Masao, Daigaku kyoiku; Isao Myojin, “Senryoka nihon no daigaku to reddo paji: Iwayuru ‘Iruzu senpu’ ni tsuite [Japanese Universities and the Red Purge During the Occupation: The So-Called ‘Eells Typhoon'],” Hokkaido kyoiku daigaku kiyo 47, no. 2 (1997): 33–45.Google Scholar

5 Krämer, Hans MartinJust Who Reversed the Course? The Red Purge in Higher Education during the Occupation of Japan,Social Science Japan Journal 8, no. 1 (2005): 4–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

6 Henceforward, vol. 20, Communism in Education in Japan is referred to as the “Walter C Eells Papers.”Google Scholar

7 SCAPIN-93 “Removal of Restrictions on Political, Civil, and Religious Liberties,” 4 October 1945 in Supreme Commander for the Allied Power, Government Section. Political Reorientation of Japan, September 1945 to September 1948, vol. 2 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1949): 463–65.Google Scholar

8 The Peace Preservation Law, which outlawed political organizations that advocated changes in either kokutai (the imperial order) or capitalism, aimed to suppress communists and anarchists. The 1928 revision of the law included the possibility of the death penalty for leaders of organizations that encouraged the alteration of kokutai.Google Scholar

9 Scalapino, Robert The Japanese Communist Movement, 19201966 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967), 48–49.Google Scholar

10 Carlile, Lonny Divisions of Labor: Globality, Ideology, and War in the Shaping of the Japanese Labor Movement (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2005), 145.Google Scholar

11 Eells, Salter C.Preface,15 May 1954, Walter C. Eells Papers, Whitman College Manuscript Collection, Penrose Library, Whitman College.Google Scholar

12 States, United Department of State, Report of the United States Education Mission to Japan, Department of State Publication 2579, Far Eastern Series 11 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1946), 2.Google Scholar

13 Orr, Mark T. Senryoka nihon no kyoiku kaikaku seisaku [Educational Reform Policies Under the Occupation of Japan], trans. Gary G. Tsuchimochi (Machida-shi: Tamagawa gakuen shuppanbu, 1993), 14. (The text here is this authors translation into English of Tsuchimochi's Japanese translation.)Google Scholar

14 Ibid., 36.Google Scholar

15 Bishop, CurtisWalter C. Eells,Junior College Journal 33, no. 6 (1963): 3; Hollis, Ernest V. “Walter Crosby Eells, 1886–1962,” School and Society 91 (1963): 242.Google Scholar

16 Vice Minister of Education, Hatsu Gaku no. 106, 17 January 1946, “Political Movement and Electoral Campaigns on the Part of Students, Teachers, and School Officials,” in Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, Civil Information and Education Section. Education in the New Japan, vol. 1 (Tokyo: GHQ, SCAP, CIE, 1948): 162.Google Scholar

17 Dower, John W. Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War Two (New York: W.W. Norton & Company Inc., 1999), 233–34; Tamamoto, Masaru “Unwanted Peace: Japanese Intellectual Thought in American Occupied Japan, 1948–1952” (PhD diss., The Johns Hopkins University, 1988), 68–76.Google Scholar

18 Oinas-Kukkonen, Henry Tolerance, Suspicion and Hostility: Chanting U.S. Attitudes Toward the Japanese Communist Movement, 1944–194 7 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2003), 134.Google Scholar

19 Tamamoto, Unwanted Peace,76; Koschmann, J. VictorIntellectuals and Politics,“ in Postwar Japan as History, ed. Gordon, Andrew (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 397.Google Scholar

20 Oinas-Kukkonen, Tolerance, Suspicion and Hostility, 130–33.Google Scholar

21 Tamamoto, Unwanted Peace,149.Google Scholar

22 Department of State, Division of Research for the Far East, Office of Intelligence Research (OIR), “Political Activities in Japanese Universities and Colleges,” 21 September 1949, 4.Google Scholar

23 Eells, Walter C.Preface,15 May 1954, Walter C. Eells Papers, Whitman College Manuscript Collection, Penrose Library, Whitman College.Google Scholar

24 Eells, Walter C. Chairman, “Plans for Higher Education in 1949,” no pagination, Walter C. Eells Papers.Google Scholar

25 Taken from the Official Communist Party Membership figures cited in Scalapino, The Japanese Communist Movement, 1920–1966, 67.Google Scholar

26 Ordinance for Controlling Association and Others (Ordinance no. 64, 1949); Department of State, Division of Research for the Far East, Office of Intelligence Research (OIR), “Political Activities in Japanese Universities and Colleges,” 21 September 1949, 6; Finn, Richard B. Winners in Peace: MacArthur, Yoshida, and Postwar Japan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 228–32.Google Scholar

27 Kyosanto Chuo Iinkai, Nihon [Japan Communist Party Central Committee], Nihon Kyosanto no 65-nen [Japan Communist Party's 65 Years], vol. 1 (Tokyo: Nihon Kyosanto Chuo Iinkai Shuppankyoku, 1988), 128.Google Scholar

28 Article Vin Law for Certification of Educational Personnel (Law no. 147, 31 May 1949) in GHQ, SCAP, the CIE, Education Division, Post-War Developments in Japanese Education, vol. 2: 270; Office of Intelligence Research (OIR), “The Campaign Against Communist Teachers in Japan,” 14 November 1949, 5; Office of Intelligence Research (OIR), “Political Activities in Japanese Universities and Colleges,” 21 September 1949, 1–2.Google Scholar

29 Eells, Walter C. to the Chief, Education Division, Memorandum “Student Strikes in Higher Educational Institutions,” 21 May 1949, in “Aftermath of Niigata Address,” Walter C. Eells Papers.Google Scholar

30 Frank Kawamoto to Dr. Eells, “Report on the Second National Conference of the Federation of All Japan Student Self Governments (Zengakuren),” 6 June 1949, in “Aftermath of Niigata Address,” Walter C. Eells Papers.Google Scholar

31 Parrotts, LindesayYoshida Appeals to Public on Reds,The New York Times, 17 July 1949.Google Scholar

32 Nugent to the Education Division, a note, 23 April 1949, in “Niigata University,” Walter C. Eells Papers. Emphasis is the author's.Google Scholar

33 CIE, “Intra section routing slip,” 8 July 1949, in “Niigata University,” Walter C. Eells Papers.Google Scholar

34 Trainor, Joseph C. Educational Reform in Occupied Japan: Trainor's Memoir (Tokyo: Meisei University Press, 1983), 345–56.Google Scholar

35 Eells, Walter C. Adviser on Higher Education, “Convocation Address: Opening of Niigata University,” 19 July 1949, 5 in “Niigata University,” Walter C. Eells Papers.Google Scholar

36 Sanders, Jane Cold War on the Campus: Academic Freedom at the University of Washington, 1946-64 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1979), 15; Schrecker, Ellen W. No Ivory Tower: McCarthyism and the Universities (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 94–105.Google Scholar

37 Allen's, Raymond B. comments quoted in “Academic Freedom and Communists,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 11 June 1949.Google Scholar

38 Schrecker, No Ivory Tower, 105.Google Scholar

39 Kurtz, Paul Sidney Hook: Philosopher of Democracy and Humanism (Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books, 1983), vii, http://www.questia.com (accessed 13 September 2010).Google Scholar

40 Postel, DannySidney Hook, an Intellectual Street Fighter Reconsidered,The Chronicle of Higher Education 49, no. 11 (November 2002), Research & Publishing section, A18. http://chronicle.com/free/v49/il 1/11a01801.htm (accessed 27 May 2009).Google Scholar

42 Phelps, Christropher Young Sidney Hook: Marxist and Pragmatist (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997), 14.Google Scholar

43 Schrecker, No Ivory Tower, 105.Google Scholar

44 Hook, SidneyAcademic Freedom and ‘The Trojan Horse’ in American Education,AAUP Bulletin 25, no. 5 (December 1939: 551–55); Schrecker, No Ivory Tower, 74, 373, n. 22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

45 Hook, SidneyShould Communists Be Permitted to Teach?,New York Times Magazine, 27 February 1949, 24, quoted in Lionel S. Lewis, Cold War on Campus: A Study of the Politics of Organizational Control (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1988), 16.Google Scholar

46 Schrecker, No Ivory Tower, 106.Google Scholar

47 Ibid., 73–74.Google Scholar

48 Fine, BenjaminN.E.A. Adopts Red-Teachers Ban; 3,000 Delegates Shout Approval,New York Times, 7 July 1949, 1; Illson, Murray, “Educators Warn On Loyalty Oaths,” New York Times, 9 October 1949, 1.Google Scholar

49 Other members included Professor John K. Norton of Columbia University's Teachers College, Dr. Mabel Studebaker, president of the N.E.A., Dr. William Jansen, superintendent of schools in New York City, Dr. John L. Bracken, President of the American Association of School Administrators, and Dean T. R. McConnell of the University of Minnesota. Benjamin Fine, “Education in Review,” New York Times, 12 June 1949, E7.Google Scholar

50 “The Role of Education,” New York Times, 9 June 1949, 30.Google Scholar

51 Educational Policies Commission, American Education and International Tensions (Washington DC: National Education Association of the United States and the American Association of School Administrators, 1949), 37–40.Google Scholar

52 Furman, BessTruman Says Reds Should Not Teach,New York Times, 10 June 1949, 11.Google Scholar

54 Schrecker, No Ivory Tower, 112.Google Scholar

55 “Academic Freedom and Communists,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 11 June 1949.Google Scholar

56 “Sanity versus Jitters,” Christian Science Monitor, 11 October 1949, 18.Google Scholar

57 “The Role of Education,” New York Times, 9 June 1949.Google Scholar

58 Hook, Sidney quoted in “It's the Teachers, Not the Books,” Los Angeles Times, 19 June 1949, A4.Google Scholar

60 Lewis, Cold War on Campus, 19.Google Scholar

61 “Akai kyoju no jogai [Elimination of Red Professors],” Asabi Shinbun, 24 July 1949; “Shiso-teki tsuiho okonawazu [No Purge on Thought],” Tokyo daigaku gakusei shinbun [Tokyo University Student Newspaper], 17–28 July 1949 (unified issue), 1.Google Scholar

62 “Report of Conference Held with Mr. Eells from Educational Information Daily,” 18 August 1949 [English translation of Nikkan Kyoiku Joho (Daily Educational Information) by CIE staff], in “Niigata University,” Walter C. Eells Papers.Google Scholar

63 Eells, Walter C. and Donald M. Typer to the Chief, Education Division, Memorandum “Program for Activities in Universities” 2 September 1949, in “Aftermath of Niigata Address,” Walter C. Eells Papers.Google Scholar

64 Chief, CIE (Nugent) to the Chief, Education Division, Memorandum “Program for Activities in Universities” 7 September 1949, in “Aftermath of Niigata Address,” Walter C. Eells Papers.Google Scholar

65 Office of Intelligence Research (OIR), “The Campaign against Communist Teachers in Japan,” 14 November 1949, 8; “‘Akai kyoin’ seiri susumu [Ousting ‘Red Teachers’ in Progress],” Asahi Shinbun, 4 October 1949; “Leftists in Japan Lose School Jobs,” New York Times, 14 October 1949.Google Scholar

66 “‘Akai kyoin'seiri susumu [Ousting ‘Red Teachers’ in Progress],” Asahi Shinbun, 4 October 1949.Google Scholar

67 Office of Intelligence Research (OIR), “The Campaign against Communist Teachers in Japan,” 14 November 1949, 1–3.Google Scholar

68 Article VIII of Fundamental Law of Education, in SCAP, the CIE, Post-War Development in Japanese Education, vol. 2, 128.Google Scholar

69 “University Head Clarifies Stand on Red Teachers,” Nippon Times, 22 October 1949, in “Aftermath of Niigata Address,” Walter C. Eells Papers; “Akai kyoju tsuiho to todai no taido [Ousting Red Professors and Tokyo University's Attitude],” Asahi Shinbun, 18 October 1949.Google Scholar

70 Office of Intelligence Research (OIR), “Political Rights in the Japanese National Public Service,” 6 February 1950, 3–4.Google Scholar

71 Mainichi Shinbun, 23 October 1949, quoted in OIR, “Political Rights in the Japanese National Public Service,” 6 February 1950, 5.Google Scholar

72 Office of Intelligence Research (OIR), “The Campaign against Communist Teachers in Japan,” 14 November 1949, 8.Google Scholar

73 Eells, Walter C. and Donald M. Typer to Chief, Education Division, Memorandum “Program for Activities in Universities,” 2 September 1949, in “Aftermath of Niigata Address,” Walter C. Eells Papers.Google Scholar

74 Eells, Walter C.Communism and Education: Dr. Eells Clarifies His Niigata Speech,Nippon Times, 4 November 1949.Google Scholar

75 “Zenkoku Daigaku Kyoju Rengo ga seimsei [Statement of the Japanese Association of University Professors],” Asabi Sbinbun, 23 October 1949.Google Scholar

76 Office of Intelligence Research (OIR), “The Campaign against Communist Teachers in Japan,” 14 November 1949, 9.Google Scholar

77 Eells, Walter C.Communism and Education: Dr. Eells Clarifies His Niigata Speech,Nippon Times, 4 November 1949.Google Scholar

78 Eells, Walter C.Communism and Education: Dr. Eells Clarifies His Niigata Speech,Nippon Times, 4 November 1949.Google Scholar

79 Office of Intelligence Research (OIR), “The Campaign against Communist Teachers in Japan,” 14 November 1949, i–ii, 9.Google Scholar

80 Nanbara to Orr, a letter, 15 August 1949, quoted in Orr, Senryoka nitron no kyoiku kaikaku seisaku [Educational Reform Policies Under the Occupation of Japan], 34.Google Scholar

81 “Denies ‘Witch Hunt’ in Education Circles” by Peter Kalischer, United Press Staff Correspondent, no source or date, Walter C. Eells Papers; “Kyoju tsuiho shirei wa sezu [No Order to Oust Professors],” Asabi Shinbun, 9 November 1949.Google Scholar

82 “U.S. Virtually Ends Civil Affairs Role throughout Japan,” New York Times, 29 July 1949.Google Scholar

83 Hirata, Tetsuo Reddo paji no shiteki kyumei [Historical Analysis of Red Purge] (Tokyo: Shin nihon shuppansha, 2002), 81.Google Scholar

84 Eells, Walter C. Communism in Education in Asia, Africa, and the Far Pacific (Washington, DC: American Council on Education, 1954), 30.Google Scholar

85 “Rito kyoju wa nokosu [Permit Dismembered Red Professors to Remain],” Asahi Shinbun, 3 December 1949; “The Statement Is GHQ Recommended—Dr. Eells, Questions and Answers about Red Professors” Asahi Shinbun, 3 December 1949, Walter C. Eells Papers.Google Scholar

86 Scalapino, The Japanese Communist Movement, 1920–1966, 60; Carlile, Divisions of Labor: Globality, Ideology, and War in the Shaping of the Japanese Labor Movement, 151.Google Scholar

87 “Expulsion of Red Professors Who Disturb Education,” Jiji Shinbun, 27 January 1950 (English translation); box 4, Ronald S. Anderson Papers, Hamilton Library, University of Hawaii at Manoa.Google Scholar

88 Eells, Walter C.Academic Freedom and Communism,“ a speech manuscript, n.d., box 4, no pagination, Ronald Stone Anderson Papers, Hamilton Library, University of Hawaii at Manoa.Google Scholar

89 Eells, Communism in Education in Asia, Africa and the Far Pacific, 30.Google Scholar

90 Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of Student Government Organization, “To the Entire Students upon Meeting Dr. Eells,” 10 April 1950 (English translation by GHQ staff) in “Kyushu University,” Walter C. Eells Papers.Google Scholar

91 Clerical Bureau of Kyushu District Federation of Student Government Organizations, “About Kyushu Universities, Struggle against War and Imperialism,” 19 April 1950, (English translation by GHQ staff) in “Kumamoto University,” Walter C. Eells Papers.Google Scholar

92 Trainor, Joseph C. Educational Reform in Occupied Japan: Trainor's Memoir, 349.Google Scholar

93 Hirata, Tetsuo ed., Daigaku jichi no kiki—Kobe daigaku reddo paji jiken no kaimei [Threat on University Autonomy: Analysis on the Red Purge at Kobe University] (Tokyo: Shiraishi shoten, 1993), 360–61.Google Scholar

94 “Two Reds Who Shouted Down Eells Nabbed; Three Others Flee,” Nippon Times, 4 May 1950.Google Scholar

95 Eells, Walter C.Disorders at Hokkaido University,3 in “Hokkaido University,” Walter C. Eells Papers; “Question and answer session between Dr. Eells and Moriya and Miyahara, Professors of Hokkaido University,” Akahata, 24 May 1950 (English translation).Google Scholar

96 Daigaku, Hokkaido Hokkaido daigaku soki 80-nen shi [Hokkaido University History of 80 Years] (Sapporo-shi: Hokkaido daigaku, 1965), 284–85.Google Scholar

97 Homufu Tokubetsu Shinsakyoku (Attorney's General Office, Special Investigation Bureau) “Showa 25-nen 8-gatsu iwayuru Tokushu Kancho Gurupu ni kansuru hokoku [August 1950 Report on Special Government Office Groups]” cited by Tetsuo Hirata, “Iruzu mondai to daigaku kyoin reddo paji no shiteki kyumei [Historical Analysis on the Eells Issue and the Red Purge],” in Daigaku jichi no kiki—Kobe daigaku reddo paji jiken no kaimei [Threats on University Autonomy: An Analysis on the Red Purge at Kobe University], ed. Tetsuo Hirata (Tokyo: Shiraishi shoten, 1993), 359.Google Scholar

98 Hirata, Iruzu mondai to daigaku kyoin reddo paji no shiteki kyumei,“ 360–62; Isao Myojin, “Dai niji kyoshokuin reddo paji keikaku to zasetsu no keii [The Second Red Purge and the Process of Its Failure],” Kyoiku shi gakkai kiyo 31 (1988): 72, n. 34.Google Scholar

99 “Monbu Jikan Loomis kaidan yoshi” [Minutes of the Meeting Between the Vice Minister and Loomis], 22 August 1950, Sengo kyoiku shiryo VI, Kokuritsu Kyoiku Seisaku Kenkyujo.Google Scholar

100 Eells, Typer, and Neufeld to the Chief, the CIE, “Report of Field Trip to Yamanashi, Ibaraki, Fukushima and Utsunomiya Universities,” 3 April 1950, 6, in “Yamanashi University,” Walter C. Eells Paper.Google Scholar