Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-tf8b9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-27T22:48:59.335Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

THE MEXICAN EXPEDITION OF 1862–1867 AND THE END OF THE FRENCH SECOND EMPIRE

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 February 2020

JEROME GREENFIELD Open the ORCID record for JEROME GREENFIELD [Opens in a new window]
JEROME GREENFIELD*
Affiliation:
King's College London
*
Department of History, King's College London, Londonwc2r 2ls[email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The French expedition to Mexico from 1862 to 1867 rarely features in accounts of the origins of the Franco-Prussian War or of the liberalization of the French Second Empire in its final years. By contrast, this article uses a range of archival and published sources to argue that the failure of the Mexican expedition was an important factor in the crisis that convulsed French politics in the late 1860s. The legitimacy of the fiscal-military system was undermined, partly because of the burdens that the expedition imposed on the French people. There resulted difficulties over finance and the army, which hindered the Second Empire's ability to confront the Prussian threat and accelerated the emergence of the ‘Liberal Empire’ with the constitutional reforms of 1867–70. Liberalization, though, could not rescue the imperial regime, and the legitimacy crisis of the Second Empire was only resolved by a transition to a parliamentary democracy under the Third Republic.

Type
Article
Information
The Historical Journal , Volume 63 , Issue 3 , June 2020 , pp. 660 - 685
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

I wish to thank David Todd for his very helpful comments on a draft of this article and Robert Tombs for his advice on aspects of my argument, in addition to the journal editor and the two anonymous referees for their suggestions. I am also very grateful to the Leverhulme Trust for the financial support that allowed me to research and write this article.

References

1 Simms, B., Europe: The struggle for supremacy, 1453 to the present (London, 2014), pp. 231–48Google Scholar.

2 Wetzel, D., A duel of giants: Bismarck, Napoleon III and the origins of the Franco-Prussian War (Madison, WI, 2001)Google Scholar; Wawro, G., The Franco-Prussian War: the German conquest of France, 1870–1871 (Cambridge, 2003), pp. 16–40CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Showalter, D. E., The wars of German unification (London, 2004), pp. 201–39Google Scholar.

3 Lally, F. E., French opposition to the Mexican policy of the Second Empire (Baltimore, MD, 1931)Google Scholar.

4 See, for example, Deluermoz, Q., Le crépuscule des révolutions, 1848–1871 (Paris, 2012), pp. 275–306Google Scholar; Anceau, É., L'Empire libéral (2 vols., Paris, 2017)Google Scholar.

5 See, for example, Corti, E. C., Maximilian und Charlotte von Mexico (2 vols., Zurich, 1924)Google Scholar; Schefer, C., La grande pensée de Napoléon III: les origines de l'expédition du Mexique (Paris, 1939)Google Scholar; Dabbs, J. A., The French army in Mexico, 1861–1867: a study in military government (The Hague, 1963)Google Scholar; Bock, C. H., Prelude to tragedy: the negotiation and breakdown of the tripartite Convention of London, October 31, 1961 (Philadelphia, PA, 1966)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hanna, A. J. and Hanna, K. A., Napoleon III and Mexico: American triumph over monarchy (Chapel Hill, NC, 1971)Google Scholar; Barker, N. N., The French experience in Mexico, 1821–1861: a history of constant misunderstanding (Chapel Hill, NC, 1979)Google Scholar; Lecaillon, J.-F., Napoléon III et le Mexique: les illusions d'un grand dessein (Paris, 1994)Google Scholar; Cunningham, M., Mexico and the foreign policy of Napoleon III (Basingstoke, 2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pani, E., Para mexicanizar el Segundo Imperio: el imaginario político de los imperialistas (Mexico City, 2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gouttman, A., La guerre du Mexique, 1862–1867: le mirage américain de Napoléon III (Paris, 2008)Google Scholar; Dugast, G.-A., La tentation mexicaine en France au XIXe siècle: l'image du Mexique et l'intervention française, 1821–1862 (2 vols., Paris, 2008)Google Scholar; Ibsen, K., Maximilian, Mexico and the invention of empire (Nashville, TN, 2010)Google Scholar; Galeana, P., ed., El imperio napoleónico y la monarquía en México (Mexico City, 2012)Google Scholar; Shawcross, E., France, Mexico and informal empire in Latin America, 1820–1867 (Cham, 2018)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 Shawcross, France, Mexico and informal empire; Carroll, C., ‘Imperial ideologies in the Second Empire: the Mexican expedition and the Royaume Arabe’, French Historical Studies, 42 (2019), pp. 67–100CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 On this point, see Todd, D., ‘A French imperial meridian, 1814–1870’, Past and Present, 210 (2011), pp. 155–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

8 Gille, G., ‘Les capitaux français et l'expédition du Mexique’, Revue d'histoire diplomatique, 79 (1965), pp. 193–250Google Scholar; Ludlow, L., ‘La disputa financiera por el imperio de Maximiliano y los proyectos de fundación de instituciones de crédito (1863–1867)’, Historia Mexicana, 47 (1998), pp. 765–805Google Scholar; Black, S. J., Napoleon III and Mexican silver (Silverton, 2000)Google Scholar; Topik, S. C., ‘When Mexico had the blues: a transatlantic tale of bonds, bankers, and nationalists, 1862–1910’, American Historical Review, 105 (2000), pp. 714–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

9 Shawcross, France, Mexico and informal empire, pp. 219–23, 247–8.

10 Napoleon III to Maximilian, 15 Jan. 1866, in Corti, Maximilian und Charlotte, ii, appendix, p. 75.

11 Hanna and Hanna, Napoleon III and Mexico; Miller, R. R., ‘Arms across the border: United States aid to Juárez during the French intervention in Mexico’, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 63 (1973), pp. 1–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

12 Marichal, C., Bankruptcy of empire: Mexican silver and the wars between Spain, Britain and France, 1760–1810 (Cambridge, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13 There is a large literature on Mexican public finance after independence: see, inter alia, Jaimes, J. H., La formación de la hacienda pública mexicana y las tensiones centro-periferia, 1821–1835 (Mexico City, 2013)Google Scholar; Sánchez-Santiró, E., Las alcabalas mexicanas (1821–1857): los dilemas de la construcción de la Hacienda nacional (Mexico City, 2009)Google Scholar; Ortega, J. A. Serrano, Igualidad, uniformidad, proporcionalidad: contribuciones directas y reformas fiscales en México, 1810–1846 (Mexico City, 2007)Google Scholar; Marichal, C. et al. , eds., Historia de la hacienda pública del estado de México (4 vols., Mexico City, 1994), iGoogle Scholar; Tenenbaum, B., The politics of penury: debts and taxes in Mexico, 1821–1856 (Albuquerque, NM, 1986)Google Scholar; Carmagnani, M., ‘Finanzas y estado en México, 1820–1880’, Ibero-Amerikanisches Archiv, 9 (1983), pp. 279–317Google Scholar.

14 Case, L. M., French opinion on war and diplomacy during the Second Empire (Philadelphia, PA, 1954)Google Scholar.

15 Marion, M., Histoire financière de la France depuis 1715 (6 vols., Paris, 1914–31), v, pp. 426–8Google Scholar.

16 Girard, L., La politique des travaux publics du Second Empire (Paris, 1952)Google Scholar; J. Greenfield, ‘The origins of the interventionist state in France, 1830–1870’, English Historical Review (forthcoming).

17 Deluermoz, Le crépuscule des révolutions, pp. 275–6; Zeldin, T., The political system of Napoleon III (London, 1958)Google Scholar.

18 Hazareesingh, S., From subject to citizen: the Second Empire and the emergence of modern French democracy (Princeton, NJ, 1998)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

19 Fould to Baroche, 4 Sept. 1862, Paris, Bibliothèque Thiers (BT), Baroche MSS, MsT 980, fo. 30.

20 Napoleon III to Forey, 30 Jan. 1863, in Gaulot, P., L'Expédition du Mexique (1861–1867), d'après les documents et souvenirs de Ernest Louet, Payeur en chef du Corps Expéditionnaire (2 vols., Paris, 1906), i, p. 120Google Scholar.

21 Lorencez to Randon, 10 Mar. 1862, Vincennes, Service historique de la Défense (SHD), 7G 1.

22 Budin to Fould, 27 May 1863, La Courneuve, Archives du Ministère des affaires étrangères (MAE), Rouher MSS, 232PAAP/4, fo. 197.

23 Lorencez to Randon, 24 June and 9 Aug. 1862, SHD, 7G 1; Budin to Fould, 27 May 1863, MAE, Rouher MSS, 232PAAP/4, fos. 197–8.

24 Lorencez to Randon, 26 Apr. 1862, SHD, 7G 1.

25 Lorencez to Randon, 24 June 1862, SHD, 7G 1.

26 Lorencez to Randon, 24 June 1862, SHD, 7G 1.

27 Lorencez to Randon, 22 July 1862, SHD, 7G 1.

28 ‘Instructions pour M. Budin, chargé d'une mission au Mexique’, by Fould, 11 Nov. 1862, MAE, 31MD/8, fo. 15.

29 Fould to Budin, 14 Apr. 1863, MAE, 31MD/8, fos. 39–40.

30 Hottinguer to Baring, 9 and 11 Nov. 1862, London, Baring Archive (BA), HC 7.1.1301, 1302; Gille, ‘Les capitaux français et l'expédition du Mexique’, p. 198.

31 Bazaine to Randon, 4 Aug. 1866, SHD, 7G 4.

32 Bazaine to Randon, 27 Nov. 1864, SHD, 7G 1.

33 Rapport à l'Empereur Maximilien, by Maury, n.d., SHD, 7G 2.

34 Forey to Randon, 13 July 1863, SHD, 7G 1.

35 Circular by Bazaine, 2 July 1864, SHD, 7G 1.

36 Bazaine to Randon, 27 Aug. 1864, SHD, 7G 1. On taxation under the Second Mexican Empire, see, for example, Garavito, M. J. R. S., ‘El deber fiscal durante la regencia y el segundo imperio: contribuciones y contribuyentes en la ciudad de México’, in Marichal, C. and Marino, D., eds., De colonia a nación: impuestos y política en México (1750–1860) (Mexico City, 2001), pp. 247–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

37 Corti, Maximilian und Charlotte, i, pp. 220–1, 293–7.

38 Salomon de Rothschild to his cousins, 11 Nov. 1863, London, Rothschild Archive (RAL), xi/109/85/3.

39 Costeloe, M. P., Bonds and bondholders: British investors and Mexico's foreign debt, 1824–1888 (Westport, CT, 2003), pp. 81–5Google Scholar.

40 Hottinguer to Baring, 4 May 1864, BA, HC 7.1.1375.

41 Topik, ‘When Mexico had the blues’, p. 719.

42 Procès-verbaux, conseil des ministres, 28 Sept. 1866, Pierrefitte-sur-Seine, Archives nationales (AN), Rouher MSS, 45AP/1.

43 Moniteur universel, 25 June 1867.

44 ‘Instructions pour M. Budin’, fo. 16.

45 Bazant, J., Historia de la deuda exterior de México, 1823–1946 (Mexico City, 1968)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

46 Germiny to Fould, 16 Nov. 1865, Savigny-le-Temple, Centre des archives économiques et financières (CAEF), B/32492.

47 Alphonse de Rothschild to his cousins, 27 Oct. 1864, RAL, XI/109/86B.

48 Fould to Bazaine, 31 May 1865, in Gaulot, L'Expédition du Mexique, ii, p. 142.

49 Constitutionnel, 21 Dec. 1867.

50 Fould to Drouyn de Lhuys, 15 Apr. 1865, MAE, 31MD/8, fos. 149–50.

51 Gille, ‘Les capitaux français et l'expédition du Mexique’, p. 207.

52 Hottinguer to Baring, 4 and 5 Aug. 1863, BA, HC 7.1.1344, 1345; Hottinguer et Cie to Fould, 25 Aug. 1863, and Fould to Hottinguer et Cie, 26 Aug. 1863, Roubaix, Archives nationales du monde du travail (ANMT), Fould et Heine MSS, 115AQ/36.

53 Hottinguer to Baring, 26 Aug. 1863, BA, HC 7.1.1347.

54 Hottinguer to Baring, 11 Mar. 1864, BA, HC 7.1.1362.

55 Gille, ‘Les capitaux français et l'expédition du Mexique’, pp. 230–5; contract of 14 Feb. 1865, ANMT, Fould et Heine MSS, 115AQ/36.

56 Marcuard to André, 23 Aug. 1863, ANMT, Neuflize MSS, 44AQ/12.

57 Baring to Hottinguer, 13 Aug. 1863, BA, LB35, fo. 188.

58 R. Hottinguer to Baring, 20 Sept. and 18 Oct. 1865, BA, HC 7.1.1408, 1412; Fould to Drouyn de Lhuys, 29 Sept. 1865, MAE, 31MD/8, fos. 169–72; contract of 29 Sept. 1865, CAEF, B/32492; Gille, ‘Les capitaux français et l'expédition du Mexique’, p. 236.

59 Duncan, R. H., ‘Political legitimation and Maximilian's Second Empire in Mexico, 1864–1867’, Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos, 12 (1996), pp. 27–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

60 Bazaine to Randon, 10 Dec. 1864, SHD, 7G 1.

61 Bazaine to Randon, 27 Dec. 1864, SHD, 7G 1.

62 Carmagnani, ‘Finanzas y estado’, pp. 282–3.

63 Bazaine to Randon, 27 July 1865, SHD, 7G 2.

64 Fould to Baroche, 15 Sept. 1866, BT, Baroche MSS, MsT 980, fo. 159.

65 Bazaine to Randon, 9 May 1866, SHD, 7G 3; Moniteur universel, 5 Apr. 1866.

66 Procès-verbaux, conseil privé, 1 May 1866, and Lacunza to Bazaine, 28 Apr. 1866, SHD, 7G 3.

67 Bazaine to Randon, 9 Apr. 1866, SHD, 7G 3.

68 Fould to Baroche, 30 July 1866, BT, Baroche MSS, MsT 980, fos. 144–5; Fould to Langlais, 16 Feb. 1866, MAE, 31MD/8, fos. 201–4; Bazaine to Randon, 28 Apr. 1866, SHD, 7G 3.

69 Convention of 30 July 1866, Moniteur universel, 13 Sept. 1866.

70 Maximilian's government had hoped for a substantial loan from the bank (Bonnefons to Fould, 27 Mar. 1865, MAE, Rouher MSS, 232PAAP/4, fos. 235–7).

71 Fould to Drouyn de Lhuys, 29 Dec. 1865, MAE, 31MD/8, fo. 179.

72 ‘Bulletin financier’, 24 Mar. 1867, Courrier de Saône-et-Loire, 26 Mar. 1867.

73 Bazaine to Randon, 4 Aug. 1866, SHD, 7G 4.

74 Loysel to Randon, 10 July 1866, SHD, 7G 4.

75 Loysel to Randon, 29 June 1866, SHD, 7G 4.

76 Fould to Drouyn de Lhuys, 14 Oct. 1864, MAE, 31MD/8, fos. 119–20.

77 Fould to Baroche, 5 Sept. 1866, BT, Baroche MSS, MsT 980, fos. 152–3.

78 Anceau, É., Napoléon III: un Saint-Simon à cheval (Paris, 2008), pp. 423–5Google Scholar.

79 Price, R., People and politics in France, 1848–1870 (Cambridge, 2004), pp. 338–41, 349–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

80 V. Bonnet, ‘La grève du milliard’, Revue des deux mondes, 15 May 1868.

81 Taylor, A. J. P., The struggle for mastery in Europe, 1848–1918 (Oxford, 1971), pp. 177–83Google Scholar.

82 Persigny to Napoleon III, 6 Apr. 1867, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France (BNF), Persigny MSS, n.a.fr. 23066, fo. 374.

83 Fould to Langlais, 10 Jan. 1866, MAE, 31MD/8, fo. 191.

84 Prefect of the Meurthe to the marshal commanding the 3rd army corps, 9 May 1862, SHD, 8G 181.

85 Prefect of the Aube to the marshal commanding the 1st army corps, 6 Dec. 1865, SHD, 8G 180.

86 Bazaine to Randon, 25 June 1864, SHD, 7G 1.

87 Randon, J.-L.-C.-A. P., Mémoires du maréchal Randon (2 vols., Paris, 1875–7), ii, p. 107Google Scholar.

88 Vierne, Presse, 15 June 1866.

89 Forey, 10 Feb. 1866, Moniteur universel, 11 Feb. 1866.

90 Case, L. M., ed., French opinion on the United States and Mexico, 1860–1867: extracts from the reports of the Procureurs Généraux (New York, NY, 1936)Google Scholar.

91 Dijon, 10 Jan. 1867, in ibid., no. 672.

92 Caen, 10 Oct. 1866, in ibid., no. 656.

93 Douai, 5 Oct. 1866, in ibid., no. 658.

94 Napoleon III to Rouher, 26 Sept. 1866, AN, Napoleon MSS, 400AP/44.

95 Anceau, É., Dictionnaire des députés du Second Empire (Rennes, 1999), p. 42Google Scholar.

96 Berryer, 23 July 1867, Moniteur universel, 24 July 1867; convention of 28 Sept. 1865 between Fould and Pinard, BT, Baroche MSS, MsT 1194, fos. 27–8.

97 Michels to Berryer, 17 Nov. 1867, AN, Berryer MSS, 223AP/16.

98 Pinard to the Corps législatif, Constitutionnel, 23 Nov. 1867.

99 Davies, H. M., Emile and Isaac Pereire: bankers, socialists and Sephardic Jews in nineteenth-century France (Manchester, 2015)Google Scholar; Girard, L., Napoléon III (Paris, 1986), pp. 408–9, 417Google Scholar.

100 Ferry, Temps, 20 Dec. 1867.

101 Ferry, J., Comptes fantastiques d'Hausmann, lettre adressée à MM. les membres de la Commission du Corps législatif chargés d'examiner le nouveau projet d'emprunt de la Ville de Paris (Paris, 1868)Google Scholar; Pinkney, D. H., Napoleon III and the rebuilding of Paris (Princeton, NJ, 1958), pp. 174, 200–6Google Scholar.

102 D'Eichthal to Baring, 6 Jan. 1867, BA, HC 7.27; on the economic consequences of the Crédit mobilier's bankruptcy, see Paulet, E., The role of banks in monitoring firms: the case of the Crédit Mobilier (London, 1999), pp. 53–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Paulet, though, focuses on French firms, and therefore perhaps understates the economic impact of the Crédit mobilier's failure.

103 Hottinguer to Baring, 26 July and 9 Aug. 1866, BA, HC 7.1.1441, 1442.

104 Moniteur universel, 3 and 15 Aug. 1868.

105 Procureur général, Besançon, to Baroche, 12 Oct. 1868, AN, BB30 389.

106 Prefect of the Loiret to the marshal commanding the 1st army corps, 27 Nov. 1866, SHD, 8G 181.

107 Moniteur universel, 12 Dec. 1866.

108 Wright, G., ‘Public opinion and conscription in France, 1866–1870’, Journal of Modern History, 14 (1942), pp. 26–45CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Casevitz, J., Une loi manquée: la loi Niel, 1866–1868, l'armée française à la veille de la guerre de 1870 (Rennes, 1960)Google Scholar.

109 Casevitz, Une loi manquée; Crépin, A., Défendre la France: les français, la guerre et le service militaire, de la guerre de Sept Ans à Verdun (Rennes, 2005), pp. 275–314CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

110 Houssard, Temps, 1 Jan. 1868.

111 Thiers, 9 July 1867, Moniteur universel, 10 July 1867.

112 Ollivier, É., L'Empire libéral: études, récits, souvenirs (18 vols., Paris, 1895–1918), ix, especially pp. 174–214, xGoogle Scholar.

113 Price, R., The French Second Empire: an anatomy of political power (Cambridge, 2001), p. 422CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

114 Darriulat, P., Les patriotes: la gauche républicaine et la nation (Paris, 2002), pp. 240–9Google Scholar.

115 Procureur général, Chambéry, to Baroche, 29 Sept. 1868, AN, BB30 389.

116 Richard, 20 Dec. 1867, Moniteur universel, 21 Dec. 1867.

117 Favre, 23 Dec. 1867, Moniteur universel, 24 Dec. 1867.

118 Price, People and politics, p. 422; Price, The French Second Empire, p. 371.

119 Anceau, L'Empire libéral, i, pp. 281–325; Girard, L., ed., Les élections de 1869 (Paris, 1960)Google Scholar.

120 Vigreux, M., ‘Des paysans républicains à la fin du Second Empire: les élections de 1869 dans le Morvan nivernais’, Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine, 25 (1978), pp. 443–69CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

121 Wright, ‘Conscription in France’, p. 43.

122 J. Silvestre, ‘La politique française dans l'Indochine’, Annales de l'École libre des sciences politiques (Paris, 1896), p. 313; Descours-Gatin, C., Quand l'opium finançait la colonisation en Indochine: l’élaboration de la règle générale de l'opium (1860 à 1914) (Paris, 1992), pp. 27–8Google Scholar.

123 Favre, J., Aux électeurs de la deuxième circonscription de la Corrèze (Limoges, 1869)Google Scholar.

124 Rémusat, Journal des débats, 14 May 1869.

125 Lambert de Sainte-Croix, Journal des débats, 15 May 1869.

126 Delord, Siècle, 5 May 1869.

127 Projet de loi (titre v, art. 29), Moniteur universel, 18 Mar. 1868.

128 Procès-verbaux, commission du budget, 5 May 1868, AN, C 1121.

129 La Guéronnière to Le Roux, 2 May 1868, AN, C 1123.

130 Rouher, 24 July 1868, Moniteur universel, 25 July 1868; law of 2 Aug. 1868, Moniteur universel, 10 Aug. 1868; Nouvelliste de la bourse de Paris, 17 Oct. 1899.

131 Herbette, Progrès de la Côte d'Or, 5 May 1869.

132 Procureur général, Riom, to Ollivier, 6 Apr. 1870, AN, BB30 390.

133 A. Corbin, Le village des cannibales (Paris, 1990), pp. 31–46.

134 Moniteur universel, 5 July 1870; Napoleon III to Marshal [Niel?], 12 July 1868, AN, Ollivier MSS, 542AP/16.

135 Daru to La Valette, 13 Feb. 1870, in Les origines diplomatiques de la guerre de 1870–1871 (29 vols., Paris, 1910–32), xxvi, no. 7931.

136 Segris to Ollivier, 24 July 1870, MAE, Ollivier MSS, 127PAAP/1, fo. 71.

137 Audoin-Rouzeau, S., 1870: la France dans la guerre (Paris, 1989), pp. 42–50Google Scholar; Anceau, L'Empire libéral, ii, pp. 803–9, 831–7.

138 Anceau, Napoléon III, pp. 513–16; Anceau, L'Empire libéral, ii, p. 844.

139 Case, French opinion…Empire, p. 216.

140 Alphonse de Rothschild to his cousins, 12 and 13 Aug. 1870, RAL, xi/109/102B.

141 Audoin-Rouzeau, 1870, pp. 123–38; Anceau, L'Empire libéral, ii, pp. 881–3, 891–3.

142 Latrade to Thiers, 18 Aug. 1870, BNF, Thiers MSS, n.a.fr. 20620, fo. 102.

143 Wawro, The Franco-Prussian War, pp. 69–72, 141.

144 Hazareesingh, From subject to citizen; Nord, P., The republican moment: struggles for democracy in nineteenth-century France (Cambridge, MA, 1995)Google Scholar.

145 Ollivier, L'Empire libéral, v, pp. 98–109.

146 Marion, Histoire financière, vi; Delalande, N., Les batailles de l'impôt: résistance et consentement de 1789 à nos jours (Paris, 2011)Google Scholar; Sawyer, S. W., ‘A fiscal revolution: statecraft in France's early Third Republic’, American Historical Review, 121 (2016), pp. 1141–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar.