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ALCOHOL PANIC, SOCIAL ENGINEERING, AND SOME REFLECTIONS ON THE MANAGEMENT OF WHITES IN EARLY APARTHEID SOCIETY, 1948–1960*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 October 2015

NEIL ROOS
NEIL ROOS*
Affiliation:
University of the Free State
*
International Studies Group, Internal Box 6, University of the Free State, Box 339, Bloemfontein, 9301, Republic of South Africa[email protected].
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Abstract

The connection between ideologies of nation, alcohol abuse, and social engineering have not received systematic attention from historians. This article offers a case-study from the history of apartheid South Africa. Working around a fragment of apartheid history, a bureaucratic panic that excessive white drinking threatened the stability of the racial order, it explores geneaologies of state responses to white drinking in South Africa. It then concentrates on the role of Geoffrey Cronje, an intellectual / bureaucrat who not only drove the panic but then used it to implement new forms of social engineering in white South African society. Drawing on penal and welfarist traditions as well as medical models of treatment, he introduced a system for the discipline and correction of whites who drank heavily that drew on both state and private resources. I examine how the defiance of those incarcerated for drinking helped shaped subsequent, lighter-handed responses that managed the drinking of greater numbers of whites. This article may provide avenues for investigating alcohol abuse, state intervention, and social engineering in a range of mid-twentieth-century societies.

Type
Articles
Information
The Historical Journal , Volume 58 , Issue 4 , December 2015 , pp. 1167 - 1189
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2015 

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Footnotes

*

My thanks to Ian Phimister, Kate Law, Yehonatan Alsheh, and the anonymous reviewers for their critical and supportive comments on drafts of this article.

References

1 A. Lynn Martin, Alcohol, violence and disorder in traditional Europe (Kirksville, MO, 2009); Taillon, Paul, ‘“What we want is good, sober men”: masculinity, respectability and temperance in railroad brotherhoods, c. 1870–1910’, Journal of Social History, 36 (2002), pp. 319–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

2 Gyanendra Pandey noted that a single instance of strife allowed him to delineate many themes salient to the history of modern India. These included the way ‘nationhood’ is naturalized, how the representation of a small section of society is taken as the ‘national mainstream’, and the drive to homogenize the nation's history. These ‘single instance’ are what the Subaltern Studies group of scholars know as ‘the fragment’, and I use the idea similarly to look backward and forward and consider several themes that derive from a single episode. Gyanendra Pandey, ‘In defence of the fragment’, in idem, Routine violence: nations, fragments, histories (Palo Alto, CA, 2005), p. 16.

3 Aletta J. Norval, Deconstructing apartheid discourse (London, 1996), p. 5.

4 Anne Stoler and Frederick Cooper, ‘Between metropole and colony: rethinking a research agenda’, in idem and idem, eds., Tensions of empire: colonial cultures in a bourgeois world (Berkeley, CA, Los Angeles, CA, and London, 1997), p. 12.

5 See for instance Zwia Lipkin, Useless to the state: ‘social problems’ and social engineering in nationalist Nanjing, 1927–1937 (Cambridge, MA, 2006). There are of course countless other examples, most obviously from Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union, and Latin America.

6 A phrase used by Latin Americanist Ilana Rodriguez, ‘A new debate on Subaltern Studies’, unpublished letter, circulated at 51st Congreso Internacional de Americanistas, Chile, 2003.

7 Deborah Posel, The making of apartheid: conflict and compromise (Oxford, 1991), p. 3.

8 These bibliographic details cited in Herman Giliomee, ‘Cronje, Geoffrey, 1907–1992’, in Emmanuel K. Akyeampong and Henry Louis Gates, eds., Dictionary of African biography (Oxford, 2012). Respectively, the translated titles of the works cited above are: A permanent home; Africa without the Asian: a lasting solution to South Africa's Asian question; Just racial apartheid; and Trusteeship and apartheid.

9 Norval, Deconstructing apartheid discourse, p. 65.

10 Mark Sanders, Complicities: the intellectual and apartheid (Durham, NC, and London, 2002).

11 Coetzee, J. M., ‘The mind of apartheid: Geoffrey Cronje (1907–)’, Social Dynamics, 17 (1991), pp. 1–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

12 Ibid., p. 2

13 These were n Tuiste vir die nageslag, Regverdige rasse-apartheid and Voogdyskap en apartheid.

14 Coetzee, ‘The mind of apartheid’, p. 17.

15 Bloedvermenging is sometimes translated as ‘miscegenation’ but Coetzee prefers ‘blood mixing’ as a closer translation to accord with the broad thrust of Cronje's arguments in n Tuiste. Coetzee, ‘The mind of apartheid’, p. 9.

16 Coetzee, ‘The mind of apartheid,’ p. 17.

17 Ibid., p. 30.

18 Ibid., pp. 25–7.

19 Hermann Giliomee, The Afrikaners: biography of a people (Cape Town and Charlottesville, VA, 2003), p. 487.

20 Ibid., p. 489.

21 Ibid., p. 497.

22 Ibid., p. 489.

23 For an account of the history of the National party in the 1930s and 1940s, and the emergence of the Herenigde (Re-united) National party in 1940, see Dan O'Meara, Volkskapitalisme: class, capital and ideology in the development of Afrikaner nationalism, 1934–1948 ( Johannesburg, 1983), pp. 119–22; idem, Forty lost years. The apartheid state and the politics of the National party, 1948–1994 (Johannesburg, and Athens, OH, 1996), p. 88.

24 O'Meara, Forty lost years, p. 86.

25 Characterized by Norval as ‘organic’ in Gramsci's terms. See Norval, Deconstructing apartheid discourse, p. 88.

26 For work on Afrikaner nationalist volkekundiges, see for instance John Sharp, ‘Serving the volk? Afrikaner anthropology revisited’, in Deborah James, Evie Plaice, and Christina Toren, eds., Culture wars: contexts, models and anthropologists' accounts (New York, NY, and Oxford, 2010), pp. 32–44; Gordon, Robert J., ‘The white man's burden: ersatz customary law and internal pacification in South Africa, Journal of Historical Sociology, 2 (1989), pp. 41–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

27 O'Meara, Forty lost years, p. 41. See also T. Dunbar Moodie, The rise of Afrikanerdom: power, apartheid and the Afrikaner civil religion (Berkeley, CA, Los Angeles, CA, and London, 1975; repr. 1980), p. 110.

28 Norval, Deconstructing apartheid discourse, p. 6.

29 Giliomee, ‘Cronje’.

30 F. J. du Toit Spies and D. H. Heydenrych, Ad destinatum II 19601982: ’n Geskiedenis van die Universiteit van Pretoria (Pretoria, 1987), p. 55.

31 C. H. Rautenbach, ed., Ad destinatum. gedenkboek van die Universiteit van Pretoria ( Johannesburg, 1960), p. 124; Fakulteit van Lettere en Wysbegeerte. Kriminologie as Vak. 20 Mei 1948, University of Pretoria archives.

32 Robert Czada, ‘Corporativism’, in Bertrand Badie, Dirk Berg-Schlosser, and Leonardo Morlino, eds., International encyclopedia of political science (London, 2011), p. 1.

33 See James Sparrow, Warfare state: World War II and the age of big government (Oxford, 2011).

34 Giliomee, The Afrikaners, p. 345. For Verword's gradual and incremental interest in the possibilities of social engineering, see Miller, Roberta, ‘Science and society in the early career of H. F. Verwoerd’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 93 (1993), pp. 634–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

35 O'Meara, Forty lost years, p. 76.

36 Norval, Deconstructing apartheid discourse, p. 23.

37 Charles van Onselen, New Babylon, New Nineveh: everyday life on the Witwatersrand, 1886–1914 (Cape Town and Johannesburg, 1982), p. 7. For a useful collection of essays on the histories of black drinking, see Jonathan Crush and Charles Ambler, Liquor and labor in South Africa (Athens, OH, 1992); Ann Mager, Beer, sociability and masculinity in South Africa (Bloomington, IN, 2010).

38 Lis Lange, White, poor and angry: white working-class families in Johannesburg (Aldershot, 2003), p. 116.

39 Chisholm, Linda, ‘Crime, class and nationalism: the criminology of Jacob De Villiers Roos, 1869–1918’, Social Dynamics, 13 (1987), pp. 51–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

40 Pieterse, J. E., ‘Die onstaan en ontwikkeling van werk-kolonies in Suid Africa’, Tydskrif vir Geesteswetenskappe, 1 (1961), p. 269Google Scholar (trans.: ‘The origins and development of work colonies in South Africa’, Journal for Humanities), p. 270.

41 Ibid., p. 271.

42 Ibid.

43 Ibid.

44 These included Die Nuwebergse Dwaarsleereserwe-Werkolonie in the Caledon district of the Cape in June 1929; Swartfontein near Nelspruit in the eastern Transvaal, opened on 1 Dec. 1938; and Eersterivier in 1940. Pieterse, ‘Die onstaan en ontwikkeling van werk-kolonies’, pp. 271–3.

45 Pieterse, ‘Die onstaan en ontwikkeling van werk-kolonies’, p. 271.

46 Ibid.

47 European women, African men and drink: alarming revelations by the Johannesburg branch of the Social Services Association of South Africa, 1944, PV 155 Shearer 194, Archive for Contemporary Affairs, University of the Free State (hereafter Archive for Contemporary Affairs).

48 Ibid.

49 ‘Alcoholism is a problem of management’, The Office: Magazine of Management, Equipment, Methods, 30 (1949), p. 6Google Scholar; PV 155 Shearer 194, Archive for Contemporary Affairs.

50 Lyman C. Duryea, medical director – Dr Vernon L. Shearer, 14 Feb. 1947, PV 155 Shearer 111, Archive for Contemporary Affairs.

51 ‘Alcoholism is a problem of management’.

52 Ron Roizen, ‘How does the nation's “alcohol problem” change from era to era? Stalking the social logic of problem-definition transformations since Repeal’, in Sarah Tracy and Caroline Acker, eds., Altering the American consciousness: essays on the history of alcohol and drug use in the USA, 1800–2000 (Amherst, MA, 2004), pp. 61–87.

53 In Britain, the breakthrough came with the opening of the alcoholism treatment unit within the National Health Service by Dr Max Glatt in the early 1950s. Griffith Edwards, E. Jane Marshall, and Christopher C. H. Cook, The treatment of drinking problems: a guide for the helping professions (Cambridge, 2003), p. 13.

54 Toc H was founded as a type of ‘Everyman's Club’ for British and Allied soldiers in Poperinghe, Belgium, in Dec. 1915. After the First World War, it became an interdenominational association for Christian social service, and it extended through the Dominions. Although initially open only to men, women became more involved in Toc H affairs during the Second World War and organized themselves into the Toc H (Women's Section).

55 Toc H (Women's Section) Post War Work, minutes of meeting convened by Toc H (Women's Section) in regard to homes for inebriate women, held at Balgownie House, Johannesburg, on 11 May 1950, PV 155 Shearer 111, Archive for Contemporary Affairs.

56 Ibid.

57 Ibid.

58 Gael Fraser – D. F. Malan, ‘The truth about alcoholism’, 16.11.51, VWN 125 SW 17/18, State archives.

59 The commissioner of the South African Police – the secretary for labour, Pretoria, 15 Sept. 1949, BNS 248 96/72 vol 1, State archives.

60 Dipesh Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe: postcolonial thought and historical difference (Princeton, NJ, 2000), pp. 3–23.

61 UG 35/1952, National Work Colonies and Retreats Advisory Board Second annual report in terms of the Work Colonies Act No.25 of 1949, Natal Society library.

62 E. Luttig, interview by author, tapes and transcripts, Bloemfontein, 23 Jan. 2012.

63 Release on Licence (Regulation 77 (6)), Department of Social Welfare and Pensions, VWN, 61/9, 367, State archives.

64 Department of Social Welfare, Report by a supervisor on an inmate released on licence from a work colony/Retreat under the Work Colonies Act No. 25 of 1949 (Circular No. 73 of 1951), VWN 61/9, 367, State archives.

65 Pieterse, ‘Die onstaan en ontwikkeling van werk-kolonies’, p. 277.

66 Ibid.

67 Superintendent, Sonderwater Werkkolonie – Die Magistraat, Cullinan, 7 July 1952, Doc 183, VWN SW 61/15, 367, part 2 – Sonderwater work colony, State archives; UG 25/1951, First annual report of the National Work Colonies and Retreats Advisory Board, 1950, Natal Society library.

68 Secretary of justice – all officers in the Department of Justice, 23 Jan. 1950, Doc 124, VWN 61/15, 367, part 1 – Sonderwater work colony; UG 35/1952, State archives. National Work Colonies and Retreats Advisory Board second annual report, 1952, Natal Society library.

69 UG 29/1953, National Work Colonies and Retreats Advisory Board. Third annual report in terms of the Work Colonies Act, No. 25 of 1949, 1953, Natal Society library.

70 Secretary for social welfare – the superintendents, Swartfontein, Sonderwater, and Eersterivier work colonies, n.d., Doc 234, VWN 61/15, 367, part 1 – Sonderwater work colony, State archives.

71 V. van Rensburg, interview by author, tapes and transcript, Pinetown, 15 July 1998.

72 Superintendent, Sonderwater Werkkolonie – Die Sekretaris van Volkswelsyn (Werkkolonies), 4 Oktober 1948, Doc 187, VWN 61/15, 367, part 1 – Sonderwater work colony, State archives.

73 D. B. Hauptfleisch, superintendent, Sonderwater Werkkolonie – Die Sekretaris van Volkswelsyn, 28/11/1949, Doc 236, VWN 61/15, 367, part 1 – Sonderwater work colony, State archives.

74 Acting superintendent, Eersterivier work colony – the secretary for social welfare, 14/2/52, VWN 1119 SW 486 vol. 2, State archives.

75 A white tsotsi. ‘Tsotsi’ derives from township slang and refers to a thug, someone who steals, lies, and is not to be trusted. www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=tsotsi (last accessed 25 Aug. 2015). In this context, a racially derogative term.

76 Brigadier H. A. Mouton, retired. Personal communication, 22 Jan. 2009.

77 First annual report of the National Work Colonies and Retreats Advisory Board, 1950.

78 Third annual report in terms of the Work Colonies Act, 1953.

79 Ibid. See also, for instance, UG 53/1958, National Work Colonies and Retreats Advisory Board sixth annual report, 1956. Natal Society library; UG 22/1960, National Work Colonies and Retreats Advisory Board eighth annual report, 1957. Natal Society library.

80 Third annual report in terms of the Work Colonies Act, 1953.

81 Van Rensburg interview.

82 Third annual report in terms of the Work Colonies Act, 1953.

83 Superintendent, Eersterivier work colony – the secretary for social welfare, 18.12.1950, VWN 1119 SW 486 vol. 2, State archives.

84 RP 60 /1962. National Work Colonies and Retreats Advisory Board eleventh annual report in terms of the Work Colonies Act, No 25 of 1949, Natal Society library.

85 This was about 0.07 per cent of the white population, and 0.13 per cent of the Afrikaans-speaking population, making the work colony system a substantial investment in a small section of the population.

86 Eric Louw – R. Hill, 3 May 1956, TES 8538 131/9/5, State archives.

87 Pieterse, ‘Die onstaan en ontwikkeling van werk-kolonies’, p. 275.

88 O'Meara, Forty lost years, p. 76. See also Robert H. Davies, Capital, state and white labour in South Africa, 1900–1960 (Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1979), p. 341.

89 Adam Ashforth, The politics of official discourse in twentieth-century South Africa (Oxford, 1990).

90 He was part of a group of scholars known as ‘Hollanders’, who had studied in the Netherlands and who gravitated to the very heart of Afrikaner intellectual culture, although they never organized themselves as a separate rump. He carried this status until the end of his professional life at the University of Pretoria. Fransjohan Pretorius interview by author, transcripts, Pretoria, 24 Nov. 2009.

91 R. McLachlan, Sekretaris – Die Direkteur, Buro vir Sensus en Statistiek, 2 Aug. 1951, BNS 248 99/72, State archives.

92 R. McLachlan, Sekretaris – Die Direkteur, Buro vir Sensus en Statistiek, 28 Nov. 1951, BNS 248 99/72, State archives.

93 R. McLachlan, Sekretaris – Die Direkteur, Buro vir Sensus en Statistiek, 2 Aug. 1951, BNS 248 99/72, State archives.

94 Secretary – the under-secretary of social work, ‘National conference on social work’, 10.8.1951, VWN 125 SW 17/81, State archives.

95 Press statement, Minister for Health and Social Welfare Dr Karl Bremer, 16 Aug. 1951, VWN 125 SW 17/18, State archives.

96 Ibid.

97 Most of the following discussion is drawn from the record of 1952 discussion. Notule van tweerde vergadering van tydelike komitee van die Nasionale Konferensie oor Alkoholisme, VWN 126 SW 17/81/4, State archives.

98 My informant was not aware of these tours, and it is uncertain whether or not they materialized, Luttig interview.

99 Resolutions and subjects for discussion by council at annual general meeting, June 1962, Johannesburg, SANCA national executive, VWN 759, State archives.

100 Luttig interview.

101 Posel, The making of apartheid, pp. 1, 228, 261.