The centuries which we designate politically by the names of the dominant powers of the age successively as the Persian, Greek, and Roman periods of Jewish history constitute as a whole an epoch in the religious history of Judaism. In these centuries, past the middle of which the Christian era falls, Judaism brought to complete development its characteristic institutions, the school and the synagogue, in which it possessed, not only a unique instrument for the education and edification of all classes of the people in religion and morality, but the centre of its religious life, and to no small extent also of its intellectual and social life. Through the study of the Scriptures and the discussions of generations of scholars it defined its religious conceptions, its moral principles, its forms of worship, and its distinctive type of piety, as well as the rules of law and observance which became authoritative for all succeeding time. In the light of subsequent history the great achievement of these centuries was the creation of a normative type of Judaism and its establishment in undisputed supremacy throughout the wide Jewish world.

Ever since it became necessary for religious belief to adjust itself to the views established by natural science concerning the structure of the world and the course of Nature, the actuality of a reign of law throughout Nature, or at least through broad tracts of phenomena, has been one of the most important scientific generalizations of which theology has been obliged to take account. And inasmuch as progress in philosophical knowledge concerning both the structure of science and the grounds of theistic belief cannot but cause some change in the mode of adjustment of the scientific and the theological interpretations of the world, it follows that each generation needs to find, to some extent, a new formulation of its answer to questions which science inevitably raises for the theologian. Among such questions are these: Is the actuality of a reign of law compatible with divine government? And if so, how is the relation of law, or of law-abiding things, to God, to be conceived, for prima facie several alternatives would seem to be open. And further, compatibility being granted, is it possible for theology to advance to an argument that in Nature's regularity we may see ground for theistic rather than for any form of nontheistic belief, or to such “proof” as theology can reasonably allege for its fundamental dogma? Such are the questions with which the present essay will deal. But before these theological issues can profitably be discussed, it is necessary to determine what shall be understood by terms such as law, Nature, and reign of law; or in what sense, and within what limits, it is warrantable to speak of law as obtaining of Nature. This preliminary and prerequisite inquiry, then, shall first be prosecuted.

In illustration of Matt. 7, 3–5 the commentaries are accustomed to quote from Jewish sources the Talmudic treatises ‘Arakin 16b and Baba Batra 15b. Thus A. H. McNeile, The Gospel according to St. Matthew (1915), says with reference to Matt. 7, 3: “An illustration of the warning in v. 1. It was perhaps another current proverb. R. Tarphon (beg. 2d cent, A.D.) lamented that men in his day could not accept reproof; if one said to another, ‘Cast the mote out of thine eye,’ he would answer, ‘Cast the beam out of thine eye’ (Erach. 16b; cf. B. Bath. 15b); but this was possibly an attack on the New Testament words.” W. C. Allen, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel according to S. Matthew (1907), remarks on the same verse: “Cf. Arachin 16b, where R. Tarphon (end first cent. A.D.) says: ‘If one says, Take the mote from thy eye, he answers, Take the beam from thine eye.’” J. A. Broadus in his Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew (1886), says: “The illustration our Lord uses is found several times in the Talmud; e.g. ‘I wonder whether there is any one in this generation who is willing to receive reproof. Nay, if one says to another, Cast out the splinter from thine eye, he will reply, Cast out the beam from thine eye.’” The list could be continued at length.