Living with the Bologna Process: Recommendations to the German Legal Education Community from a U.S. Perspective

Laurel S. Terry

doi:10.1017/S2071832200005186

1 Terry, Laurel S., The Bologna Process and the Dramatically Changing Nature of Legal Education in Europe, (2006), available soon at www.ssrn.com [hereinafter Terry, The Bologna Process and Legal Education]. See also Terry, Laurel S., The Bologna Process and Its Implications for U.S. Legal Education, 57 Journal of Legal Education (forthcoming 2007) (reflections and recommendations to the U.S. legal community about the Bologna Process).Google Scholar

2 Terry, Laurel S., German Legal Education and the Challenges of Implementing the Bologna Process: A Case Study (2006), available soon at www.ssrn.com [hereinafter Terry, The Bologna Process: A German Case Study].Google Scholar

3 Joint Declaration on Harmonisation of the Architecture of the European Higher Education System By the Four Ministers in Charge for France, Germany, Italy and The United Kingdom, May 25, 1998, available at http://www.bologna-bergen2005.no/Docs/00-Main_doc/980525SORBONNE_DECLARATION.PDF [hereinafter Sorbonne Declaration].Google Scholar

4 The European Higher Education Area - Achieving the Goals, Communiqué of the Conference of European Ministers Responsible for Higher Education, p. 6 May 19–20, 2005, available at http://www.bologna-bergen2005.no/Docs/00-Main_doc/050520_Bergen_Communique.pdf, [hereinafter Bergen Communiqué]. See also From Berlin to Bergen: General Report of the Bologna Follow-up Group to the Conference of European Ministers Responsible for Higher Education, p. 40–41 May 3, 2005, available at http://www.bologna-bergen2005.no/Bergen/050503_General_rep.pdf, [hereinafter Bologna Follow-up Group Report for the Bergen Ministerial Meeting] (explaining the procedures for admission into the Bologna Process and the acceptance of the applications from Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine, but not Kazakhstan or Kosovo, both of which may be accepted in 2007 during the London Ministerial meeting).Google Scholar

5 Lisbon European Council: Presidency Conclusions (EC), Nr: 100/1/00 at 1, Mar. 24, 2000, available at http://ue.eu.int/ueDocs/cms_Data/docs/pressData/en/ec/00100-r1.en0.htm [hereinafter Lisbon Strategy] (setting forth the Lisbon Strategy; this was later reaffirmed and expanded in Barcelona in 2002). See also European Council, Detailed Work Programme On The Follow-Up Of The Objectives Of Education And Training Systems In Europe, 2002 O.J. (C 142) 1.Google Scholar

6 Communiqué, Bergen, supra note 4, at 2 (“Ministers take into due consideration the conclusions [of the Lisbon Strategy and call] for further action and closer co-operation in the context of the Bologna Process.”). See supra note 5 for more information on the Lisbon Strategy.Google Scholar

7 Joint Declaration of the European Ministers of Education, The Bologna Declaration of 19 June 1999, p. 3, available at http://www.bologna-bergen2005.no/Docs/00-Main_doc/990719BOLOGNA_DECLARATION.PDF, [hereinafter Bologna Declaration] (“While affirming our support to the general principles laid down in the Sorbonne declaration, we engage in coordinating our policies to reach in the short term, and in any case within the first decade of the third millennium, the following objectives, which we consider to be of primary relevance in order to establish the European area of higher education and to promote the European system of higher education worldwide…”). See also Towards the European Higher Education Area: Communiqué of the meeting of European Ministers in charge of Higher Education in Prague on May 19th 2001, p. 1, available at http://www.bologna-bergen2005.no/Docs/00-Main_doc/010519PRAGUE_COMMUNIQUE.PDF, [hereinafter Prague Communiqué] (“We confirm our commitment to coordinating our policies through the Bologna Process to establish the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) by 2010…”). The year 2010 is not mentioned in the Sorbonne Declaration. See Sorbonne Declaration, supra note 3.Google Scholar

8 See supra notes 3–5, 7 and infra note 12.Google Scholar

9 See Declaration, Sorbonne, supra note 3. See also Bologna Declaration, supra note 7.Google Scholar

10 See supra notes 4, 7 and infra note 12.Google Scholar

11 Communiqué, Prague, supra note 7.Google Scholar

12 Realising the European Higher Education Area: Communiqué of the Conference of Ministers responsible for Higher Education in Berlin on 19 September 2003, p. 1, available at http://www.bolognabergen2005.no/Docs/00-Main_doc/030919Berlin_Communique.PDF [hereinafter Berlin Communiqué].Google Scholar

13 See Communiqué, Bergen, supra note 4.Google Scholar

14 European Quality Assurance Standards, available at http://www.bologna-bergen2005.no/EN/BASIC/Quality_Assurance_Standards.HTM.Google Scholar

15 Framework of Qualifications for the European Higher Education Area, available at http://www.bologna-bergen2005.no/EN/BASIC/Framework_Qualifications.HTM (addresses outcomes for the three cycles of degrees and target credits).Google Scholar

16 Communiqué, Berlin, supra note 12, at 8 (“The overall follow-up work will be supported by a Secretariat which the country hosting the next Ministerial Conference will provide.”).Google Scholar

17 UK Bologna Secretariat Website, http://www.dfes.gov.uk/bologna/ [hereinafter UK Bologna Secretariat Website] (last visited July 5, 2006) (“From 1 July 2005 the UK has taken over responsibility for the Secretariat to the Bologna Follow Up Group and its Board. Our aim is to provide information and news about developments in the Bologna Process and about how the work programme will be taken forward over the next two years prior to the next Ministerial Summit in London in May 2007.”).Google Scholar

18 See Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung, Bologna Process: Towards the European Higher Education Area, Berlin 2003, available at http://www.bologna-berlin2003.de/ [hereinafter Berlin Bologna Website].Google Scholar

19 See Berlin Bologna Website, supra note 18. See also Bergen Secretariat, Bologna Process Official Webpage, http://www.bologna-bergen2005.no/EN/About/Web1.HTM [hereinafter Bergen Bologna Website] (last visited July 5, 2006) (follow “About the Website”).Google Scholar

20 UK Bologna Secretariat Website, supra note 17 (links listed on homepage).Google Scholar

21 Bergen Bologna Website, supra note 19; Work Programme Action Lines, http://www.bolognabergen2005.no/EN/Work_prog/1Prog_Back-Action_lines.HTM [hereinafter Bologna Action Lines] (follow “Basic Information”) (these ten “action lines” were taken from the official Bologna Process Work Programme.).Google Scholar

22 See Lines, Bologna Action, supra note 21.Google Scholar

23 See Communiqué, Berlin, supra note 12, at 7.Google Scholar

24 See id. (“Ministers charge the Follow-up Group with organizing a stocktaking process in time for their summit in 2005 and undertaking to prepare detailed reports on the progress and implementation of the intermediate priorities set for the next two years….”).Google Scholar

25 Bologna Process Stocktaking Report, p. 16, available at http://www.bologna-bergen2005.no/Bergen/050509_Stocktaking.pdf [hereinafter 2005 Stocktaking Report] (from a working group appointed by the Bologna Follow-up Group to the Conference of European Ministers Responsible for Higher Education, May 19–20, 2005).Google Scholar

26 Id. at 18.Google Scholar

27 Id. at 21.Google Scholar

28 The Diploma Supplement referred to here is a standardized form that higher education institutions attach to each higher education diploma in order to explain its meaning to those from other countries. It is derived from an international convention or agreement that was reached under the auspices of the Council of Europe, the European Commission and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Diploma Supplement includes items such as the name of the degree; information on the contents of the degree, including the units studied, individual grades, the grading scheme and grade distribution; and information on whether the degree provides access to further study or confers professional status. UNESCO, Diploma Supplement, available at http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/file_download.php/1bf758ecb6612b53c359b30e62749419Diploma+Supplement.pdf.Google Scholar

29 The Lisbon Convention referred to here is Council of Europe/UNESCO, Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education in the European Region, Apr. 11, 1997, ETS No. 165, available at http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/165.htm [hereinafter Lisbon Convention]. See also Explanatory Report on the Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education in the European Region Apr. 11, 1997, ETS No. 165, available at http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Reports/Html/165.htm [hereinafter Lisbon Convention Explanatory Memo].Google Scholar

According to a summary prepared for the Bologna Process, the nine main points in the Lisbon Convention are as follows: 1) holders of qualifications issued in one country shall have adequate access to an assessment of these qualifications in another country; 2) there should be no discrimination on any ground such as the applicant's gender; race; colour; disability; language; religion; political opinion; or national, ethnic or social origin; 3) the body undertaking the assessment has the responsibility to demonstrate that an application does not fulfil the relevant requirements; 4) each country has an obligation to recognize higher education qualifications and degrees as similar to its own unless it can show that there are substantial differences between its own qualifications and the qualifications for which recognition is sought; 5) recognition of a higher education qualification issued in another country shall have one or both of the following consequences: access to further higher education studies, including relevant examinations and preparations for the doctorate, on the same conditions as candidates from the country in which recognition is sought; and the use of an academic title, subject to the laws and regulations of the country in which recognition is sought; 6) all countries shall develop procedures to assess whether refugees and displaced persons fulfil the relevant requirements for access to higher education or to employment activities, even in cases in which the qualifications cannot be proven through documentary evidence; 7) all countries shall provide information on the institutions and programmes they consider as belonging to their higher education systems; 8) all countries shall appoint a national information centre, one important task of which is to offer advice on the recognition of foreign qualifications to students, graduates, employers, higher education institutions and other interested parties or persons and 9) all countries shall encourage their higher education institutions to issue the Diploma Supplement to their students in order to facilitate recognition. The Lisbon Convention - What is it?, http://www.bologna-bergen2005.no/Docs/03-PNY/Lisbon_for_pedestrians.pdf.Google Scholar

30 See European Commission, ECTS - European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System, http://ec.europa.eu./education/programmes/socrates/ects/index_en.html (last visited June 27, 2006) (“ECTS began in 1989 as a system for transferring credits among ERASMUS and SOCRATES in order to facilitate study abroad.”). The ECTS system is based on the principle that 60 credits measure the workload of a full-time student during one academic year. Id. As the European Commission explains, “Recently ECTS is developing into an accumulation system to be implemented at institutional, regional, national and European level. This is one of the key objectives of the Bologna Declaration of June 1999.” Id.Google Scholar

31 2005 Stocktaking Report, supra note 25, at 40–106.Google Scholar

32 Id.Google Scholar

33 Id.Google Scholar

34 Id. at 41.Google Scholar

35 Id.Google Scholar

36 Id. at 40, 78–79.Google Scholar

37 Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung, Pressemitteilung 113/2005, Bulmahn: Die Konferenz von Bergen wird die Schaffung eines europäischen Hochschulraums voranbringen, available at http://www.bmbf.de/press/1468.php (noting Germany's favorable report regarding the degree cycle and quality assurance objectives).Google Scholar

38 Bergen Communiqué, supra note 4, at 5 (“We charge the Follow-up Group with continuing and widening the stocktaking process and reporting in time for the next Ministerial Conference.”).Google Scholar

39 ENQA is the acronym for the European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education. See ENQA, About ENQA, http://www.enqa.eu/. The report referred to here is ENQA, Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European Higher Education Area (2005), http://www.bolognabergen2005.no/Docs/00-Main_doc/050221_ENQA_report.pdf.Google Scholar

40 See Communiqué, Bergen, supra note 4, at 5 (“We expect stocktaking to be based on the appropriate methodology and to continue in the fields of the degree system, quality assurance and recognition of degrees and study periods, and by 2007 we will have largely completed the implementation of these three intermediate priorities. In particular, we shall look for progress in [the four listed items].”).Google Scholar

41 Id.Google Scholar

42 See Bologna Secretariat Website, Events, http://www.dfes.gov.uk/bologna/index.cfm?fuseaction=events.list (last visited July 4, 2006).Google Scholar

43 The Bologna Process ministers issued a document in November 2005 that memorialized their October 2005 agreement regarding the proposed work plan. UK Secretariat, Bologna Process, BFUG WORK PROGRAMME - 2005–2007 (Nov. 2005), http://www.dfes.gov.uk/bologna/uploads/documents/WORKPROGversforweb18Nov05.doc. The Bologna Secretariat has issued several updated versions of this work program. At the time this article was written, the current version was dated August 2006. UK Secretariat, Bologna Process, BFUG Work Programme - 2005–2007 (August 2006), http://www.dfes.gov.uk/bologna/uploads/documents/Work_Programme_at5Sept2006.doc [hereinafter August 2006 Work Program] (last visited Sept. 25, 2006).Google Scholar

44 See, e.g., CCBE, Comparative Table on Training of Lawyers in Europe, at Q. 4, pp. 23–26 and 30 (Sept. 2005), available at http://www.ccbe.org/doc/En/comparative_table_en.pdf [hereinafter CCBE Survey] (showing that in Europe, including Germany, law typically is taught as an undergraduate course of study in the universities). For information on the different kinds of German higher education institutions, see infra note 50 and accompanying text.Google Scholar

45 The primary federal law that applies to German higher education institutions, see Hochschulrahmengesetz (HRG – Framework Act for Higher Education) Jan. 19, 1999, BGBl. I at 18, last amended by Act, Dec. 27, 2004, BGBl. I at 3835, art. 1 [hereinafter 1998 Federal Framework Act] (considering the decision of the Bundesverfassungsgericht (BVerfG – Federal Constitutional Court), 2 BvF 1/03, Jan. 26, 2005, http://www.bmbf.de/pub/hrg_20050126_e.pdf.). An example of a state law regarding higher education is Gesetzes über die Hochschulen des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen (HG – Hochschulgesetz [Law of Higher Education Institutions in Nordrhein-Westfalen], Mar. 14, 2000, GV. NRW. at 190, last amended by Act, November 30, 2004, GV. NRW. at 752, http://www.innovation.nrw.de/hochschulen_in_nrw/recht/HG.html (last visited July 1, 2006). But see infra note 46 regarding the recent federalism reforms.Google Scholar

46 In October 2003, the Bundestag and the Bundesrat created a Joint Commission that was charged with the “modernization of the federal system.” See Bundesrat, Föderalismusreform, http://www.bundesrat.de/cln_051/nn_6906/DE/foederalismus/Foederalismusinhalt.html__nnn=true [hereinafter Federalism Reform Website]. In June 2006, the government presented a draft federalism reform bill, which was adopted on July 7, 2006 and took effect in September 2006. Background information, drafts and the final legislation is available at the Federalism Reform Website, supra. These reforms were adopted after this article was drafted and are beyond the scope of this article. Prior to the adoption of these reforms, the German Ministry for Education and Research had explained as follows the implications of this federalism reform for higher education:Google Scholar

The most important key to innovation is an education and research system that is oriented to today's challenges and that is truly world-class. Germany needs to become faster, better and - especially - more international! To achieve these aims, we have to shed bureaucratic ballast, divide responsibilities more clearly and streamline and clarify decision-making structures. Herein lies the real opportunity afforded by the reform of the federal system.Google Scholar

German Federal Ministry of Education and Research, Using the opportunities provided by the reform of Germany's federal system, http://www.bmbf.de/en/1263.php (last visited June 11, 2006).Google Scholar

47 Many of the Bologna reforms, including the switch to bachelor and master's degrees and an “evaluation” requirement, were contained in the 1998 Federal Framework Act, supra note 45. For information in English about all of these reforms, including the Bologna Process reforms, see German Federal Ministry of Education and Research, Higher Education Reform, at http://www.bmbf.de/en/655.php [hereinafter Higher Education Reform Webpage]. See also Terry, The Bologna Process: A German Case Study, supra note 2, at §I(B)(2).Google Scholar

48 See Higher Education Reform Webpage, supra note 47. This webpage includes links to pages discussing each of these reforms except the tuition reform. This webpage includes a link to the BAföG, which provides financial assistance to students, but does not directly address the tuition reforms. For a German webpage listing the status of student fees in each German state, see freier zusammenschluss von studentInnenschaften (fzs), Themen: Studiengebühren: überblick bundesländer, http://www.fzs.de/themen/studiengebuehren/bundeslaender/index.html (last visited June 19, 2006).Google Scholar

49 For additional information about qualifying as a lawyer, see Brunee, Jutta, The Reform of Legal Education in Germany: The Never-Ending Story and European Integration, 42 Journal of Legal Education 399 (1992); Philip Leith, Legal Education in Germany: Becoming a Lawyer, Judge, and Professor, 4 Web Journal of Current Legal Issues (1995), http://webjcli.ncl.ac.uk/articles4/leith4.html; Keilmann, Annette, The Einheitsjurist: A German Phenomenon, 7 German Law Journal 293 (2006), http://www.germanlawjournal.com/article.php?id=712 [hereinafter Keilmann]; Terry, The Bologna Process: A German Case Study, supra note 2, at §I(C).Google Scholar

50 Germany has three types of higher education institutions: 1) universities; 2) Fachhochschule (UAS – Universities of Applied Sciences), and 3) colleges of art and music. See HRK- the German Rectors Conference, National Higher Education System: Germany, http://www.hrk.de/eng/download/dateien/NatStatem_GER(1).pdf [hereinafter National Higher Education System: Germany].Google Scholar

The lawyer qualification requirements are set forth in federal and state laws. Deutsches Richtergesetz (DriG – The German Judiciary Act) Apr. 19, 1972, BGBl. I at S. 713; last amended through Article 27 of the Act of April 19, 2006 (BGBl. I S. 866), available at http://bundesrecht.juris.de/drig/[hereinafterDRiG]. In order to qualify as a lawyer, one must attend a university. Id. at §§5 and 5a.Google Scholar

51 Id. at §5d.Google Scholar

52 Id. at §5b.Google Scholar

53 Id. at §§5 and 5d.Google Scholar

54 Id. at §5 (access for judges); Bundesrechtsanwaltsordnung- BRAO, §4 (as amended Dec. 21, 2004), available at http://bundesrecht.juris.de/bundesrecht/brao/index.html (last visited Nov. 15, 2005)(access for lawyers). An earlier, outdated English version of the BRAO is available at http://www.brak.de/seiten/pdf/Berufsregeln/brao_engl.pdf (last visited Nov. 15, 2005)(version from June 11, 2002).Google Scholar

55 See, e.g., National Higher Education System: Germany, supra note 50, at 1 (explaining that traditionally, study led to the Diplom or Magister Artium degrees or completion of the state examination.) Although German states for many years had the power to create a Diplom Jurist degree, few did so. Compare §18 of the 1976 version of the federal education law, which allowed German states to authorize the degree of Diplom to law graduates who successfully passed the state examinations and the late adoption of this option by some German states. See Hochschulrahmengesetz (HRG) [Framework Act for Higher Education], Jan. 26, 1976, version applicable from Jan. 30, 1976, to Nov. 22, 1985, BGBl I 1976, 185, available at http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/bundesrecht/hrg/gesamt.pdf (last visited March 16, 2006); infra note 56 (NRW's recent authorization of the Diplom Jurist degree).Google Scholar

56 See, e.g., Gesetz über die Hochschulen des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen (Hochschulgesetz – HG) [Higher Education Law of Nordrhein-Westfalen], March 14, GV. NRW. at 190, zuletzt geändert durch Gesetz December 16, 2003, GV. NRW. at 772, at §§ 2(4) and 96(2), available at http://sgv.im.nrw.de/gv/frei/2000/Ausg13/AGV13–1.pdf#search=%22NRW%20(Hochschulgesetz%20%E2%80%93%20HG)%20vom%2014%20M%C3%A4rz%202000%22 (Nordrhein-Westfalen law authorizing the Diplom degree for those who successfully passed the state examinations in law). See also Terry, The Bologna Process: A German Case Study, supra note 2, at §I(C).Google Scholar

57 See, e.g., University of Cologne Faculty of Law, Ordnung zur Verleihung des Hochschulgrades “Diplom-Juristin” oder “Diplom-Jurist” (October 1, 2004), available at http://www.uni-koeln.de/jur-fak/www/_download/diplomjurist_20010813.pdf. (University of Cologne Faculty of Law regulation adopted pursuant to the NRW law, supra note 56; this faculty rule authorizes, for the first time, the award of the Diplom-Jurist degree for those who successfully pass the first state examination and retroactively grants it to those graduates who passed their first state examination after January 1, 1980); accord Marc-André Delp, Ein heißer Tipp: Diplom-Jurist in Niedersachsen, Online JuMagazine, May 22, 2002, http://www.jumag.de/ju4302.htm (noting that the degree of Diplom-Jurist is now available at the universities of Hannover, Osnabruck and Göttingen).Google Scholar

58 Huber, Peter M., Der Bologna-Prozess und seine Bedeutung für die deutsche Juristenausbildung, 1 European Journal of Legal Education 35 (2004), available at http://www.jura.uni-muenchen.de/einrichtungen/fakultaetentag/aktuell/vortragelfa.pdf.Google Scholar

59 Gesetz zur Reform der Juristenausbildung (Law on the Reform of Legal Education), July 11, 2002, BGBl. I, 2002, Teil I Nr. 48, 2592 et seq., available at http://217.160.60.235/BGBL/bgbl1f/bgbl102s2592.pdf [hereinafter 2003 German Legal Education Reforms]. This law revised the provisions of the DRiG, supra note 50. For commentary in English about these revisions, see Kilian, Matthias, Developments in the German Legal Profession in 2003, available at http://www.uni-koeln.de/jur-fak/dzeuanwr/germanlegalprofession2003.pdf; Keilmann, supra note 49, at 297–299. For a discussion of proposed reforms that were not adopted, see id. at 305–06.Google Scholar

60 The stakeholders that have endorsed the Bologna Process’ application to legal education include the German Ministry of Education and Research in its submissions to other Bologna Process countries, the organization of higher education institutions called the Hochschulrektorenkonferenz or HRK, which co-authored Germany's national report, and the Wissenschaftsrat (the Science Council that advises the government). See, e.g., Sekretariat der Ständigen Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland and Bundesministerium fur Bildung und Forschung (BMBF), Germany's National Report 2004: Achieving Bologna Process Objectives A Joint Report by KMK and BMBF at p. 18, available at http://www.bologna-bergen2005.no/Docs/Germany/National_Reports-Germay_050118-orig.PDF [hereafter 2004 German National Report](“The switch to the two-cycle system is to continue and availability of accredited Bachelors and Masters degrees will be expanded. The ongoing aim is to integrate further state examined degree programmes like law, medicine and pharmacy into the two-cycle system. …”); Wissenschaftsrat, Empfehlung zur Reform der staatlichen Abschlüsse (Nov. 15, 2002), available at http://www.wissenschaftsrat.de/texte/5460–02.pdf. [hereafter Wissenschaftsrat Study]. For additional information, see Terry, The Bologna Process: A German Case Study, supra note 2, at §III(B).Google Scholar

61 See, e.g., Justizministerkonferenz, Herbstkonferenz der Justizministerinnen und Justizminister am 17.11.2005, Beschlüsse der Justizministerkonferenzen 1, Der Bologna-Prozess und seine möglichen Auswirkungen auf die Juristenausbildung, at ¶3, available at http://www.justiz.bayern.de/imperia/md/content/stmj_internet/ministerium/ministerium/jumiko/2005/htop_i1.pdf (last visited Nov. 25, 2005)(“ Die Justizministerinnen und Justizminister sind der Überzeugung, dass die mit einer Übernahme der Ziele der Bologna-Erklärung notwendig werdende Neustrukturierung des volljuristischen Studiums derzeit nicht sinnvoll ist. Sie ist ohne eine Auswertung der Ergebnisse der gerade erst begonnenen Umsetzung des Gesetzes zur Reform der Juristenausbildung auch nicht vertretbar.”)[hereinafter JUMIKO November 2005 Resolution]; Impulsreferat der Bundesministerin der Justiz Frau Brigitte Zypries zum Thema “Reform nach der Reform – Vereinbarkeit der besonderen Wesenszüge der Juristenausbildung in Deutschland mit dem Anliegen des Bologna-Prozesses”, available at http://www.jura.uni-muenchen.de/einrichtungen/fakultaetentag/aktuell/referate/zypries.pdf; Merk, Beate, Der Bologna-Prozess –Juristische Staatsprüfung oder Bachelor?, Forschung & Lehre 322 (June 2004). Recently, however, there appeared to be some thawing of this position. The Justice Minister from the German state of Nordrhein-Westfalen gave a speech to the Bundesrechtsanwaltskammer (BRAK) in which she encouraged the BRAK to embrace the Bologna Process. See Vortrag von Justizministerin Roswitha Müller-Piepenkötter anlässlich der 109. Hauptversammlung der BRAK in Münster “Neuregelungen des Rechtsberatungsrechts und Bachelor- und Masterstudiengänge für Juristen”, 15.09.2006, available at http://www.justiz.nrw.de/Presse/reden/15_09_061/index.php.Google Scholar

62 See infra note 63. For additional information, see Terry, supra note 2, at §III (citing the reactions of the Bundesrechtsanwaltskammer (BRAK) and the Deutscher Anwaltverein (DAV), which have expressed concerns and contrasting that with the views of commentators such as Professor Hein Kötz and Dr. Jens Jeep, among others, who have been supportive of implementing Bologna Process changes).Google Scholar

63 Symposium: Der Bologna-Prozess und die Juristenausbildung in Deutschland Sept. 22, 2005, Berlin, available at http://www.hochschulverband.de/cms/fileadmin/pdf/seminare/Faltblatt.pdf [hereinafter Berlin Symposium].Google Scholar

64 Anwaltverein, Deutscher, Deutscher Juristen-Fakultätentag, Hochschulverband, Deutscher, Presseinformation Nr. 14/2005: Bachelor qualifiziert nicht für Beruf des Richters oder Anwalts (Sept. 22, 2005), available at http://www.hochschulverband.de/cms/fileadmin/pdf/pm/pm14–2005.pdf.Google Scholar

The day after this press release, the HRK or German university association issued its own press release that was critical of the Symposium press release. Hochschulrektorenkonferenz, Pressemitteilung 54/05: Gezielte Fehlinformationen gefährden die bereits laufenden Bemühungen im Bologna-Prozess. HRK reagiert auf Darstellungen in der Presse zum Bachelor in Jura und Medizin, available at http://www.hrk.de/95_2802.php.Google Scholar

65 Gemeinsam für Deutschland – mit Mut und Menschlichkeit, Koalitionsvertrag zwischen CDU, CSU und SPD 144–145 (Nov. 11, 2005), avaliable at http://www.spd.de/servlet/PB/show/1589444/111105_Koalitionsvertrag.pdf (last visited Nov. 29, 2005).Google Scholar

66 Id. This contract is not completely clear about whether it rejects the application of the entire Bologna Process to legal education or whether the intent is to reject only the bachelor-master degree reforms. For additional information on this topic, see Terry, The Bologna Process and Legal Education, supra note 2, at §III(C). The Grand Coalition contract states:Google Scholar

Mit einer Reform der Rechtsberatung werden wir weiter die Qualität der anwaltlichen Beratung sichern. Wir schützen die Verbraucherinnen und Verbraucher vor unqualifiziertem Rechtsrat … Die Juristenausbildung muss den sich ändernden Anforderungen an die juristischen Berufe gerecht werden. Einen Bedarf für neue Abschlüsse gibt es allerdings nicht. Die Koalitionspartner lehnen deshalb die Übertragung des “Bologna-Prozesses” auf die Juristenausbildung ab.Google Scholar

67 Professor Dauner-Lieb, who currently holds an administrative position at the University of Cologne, as well as a faculty chair in law, expressed these same sentiments in her article. Barbara Dauner-Lieb, Der Bologna –Prozess - endgültig kein Thema für die Jurisenausbildung, 56 AnwaltsBlatt 5, 6 (2006)[hereafter Dauner-Lieb], available at http://www.uni-koeln.de/jur-fak/lbrah/pdf_docs/ws0506/bologna.pdf.Google Scholar

68 See Allgemeiner Fakultätentag (AFT), Positionen der Mitgliedsfakultätentage zum Bologna-Prozess, available at http://www.fakultaetentag.de/bologna.html for information on the positions taken by subject-matter area faculty organizations,. This list is not complete, however, it does not include the position of the Deutschen Juristen-Fakultätentages (DJFT). See also Terry, The Bologna Process and Legal Education, supra note 2, at §II(B).Google Scholar

69 See, e.g., University of Cologne Faculty of Law, Rechtswissenschaftliche Studiengänge, available at http://www.uni-koeln.de/jur-fak/www/studium/studiengaenge/ (describing the requirements for student who study law as a minor or “Nebenfach”).Google Scholar

70 See CCBE Survey, supra note 44. The CCBE is the officially recognized representative organization for the legal profession in the EU and represents more than 700,000 lawyers. The CCBE consists of 28 delegations whose Members are nominated by regulatory bodies of the Bars and Law Societies in the 25 Member States and the 3 member countries of the European Economic Area. CCBE, What is the CCBE?, available at http://www.ccbe.org/en/accueil/accueil_en.htm. See also Laurel S. Terry, An Introduction to the European Community's Legal Ethics Code Part I: An Analysis of the CCBE Code of Conduct, 7 Georgetown Journal of Legal Ethics 1 (1993), available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=596203.Google Scholar

71 See CCBE Survey, supra note 44, at Question 5a, pp. 26–29. Although the responses are not completely unambiguous, I concluded that the following countries provided an affirmative response to the question of whether the Bologna Process had affected their degree structure: Belgium; Estonia; Finland; France; Iceland; Italy; Latvia; Luxembourg; the Netherlands; Norway; Poland; Slovak Republic; Spain; Croatia; and Switzerland. (Some of these countries indicated that changes had been made which would take effect at a specified future date.) Only ten countries provided a negative response to this question, with ten countries providing an answer that was conditional, non-responsive or stated that the question was inapplicable. Id.Google Scholar

72 See CCBE Survey, supra note 44, at Question 8, pp. 74–77. Although the responses are not completely unambiguous, I concluded that the following seven countries provided an affirmative response to the question of using ECTS for grading purposes were: Belgium; the Netherlands; Norway; Slovak Republic; Sweden; Northern Ireland; and Croatia. I treated the Czech Republic answer as conditional because I interpreted the qualification about which university as applying to this question also. I also treated the Spanish answer as conditional since it stated that the credits are not yet equivalent to the ECTS. The fourteen jurisdictions that I treated as providing unconditional “yes” response to the question of using ECTS for crediting purposes were: Austria; Belgium; Finland; France; Hungary; Italy; the Netherlands; Norway; Slovak Republic; Sweden; Northern Ireland; Scotland; Croatia; and Switzerland. Only two countries provided an unequivocal “no” answer to the question of whether ECTS was used for crediting, with eleven countries providing a “no” answer to the question of whether ECTS was used for grading purposes. Id.Google Scholar

73 A number of commentators have made this observation including Tom Peters, who said “What gets measured gets done.” A Google search of the phrase “what gets measured matters” shows that this concept is used in a wide variety of disciplines and countries, ranging from the Statistician-General of South Africa to human resource managers at companies to conference presenters for the National Criminal Justice Reference Service, which is a program administered by the U.S. Department of Justice to the Texas state government Workforce initiative.” The principle that what gets measured matters is supported by significant social science research. See, e.g., David Osbourne and Ted Gaebler, Reinventing Government (1992); but see R.D. Behn, Why measure performance? Different purposes require different measures, 63 Public Administration Review 586 (2003) (noting that the public sector has special factors that complicate the causal link between measuring and performance).Google Scholar

74 See, e.g., Sekretariat der Ständigen Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland and Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF), Germany's National Report 2004: Achieving Bologna Process Objectives A Joint Report by KMK and BMBF at 4, available at http://www.bologna-bergen2005.no/Docs/Germany/National_Reports-Germay_050118-orig.PDF (last visited Nov. 17, 2005)[hereinafter German National Report 2004].Google Scholar

75 See, e.g., the resources listed on the German government's English-language Bologna website. German Federal Ministry of Education and Research, Bologna Process, available at http://www.bmbf.de/en/3336.php (last visited June 8, 2006). Additional information about German initiatives, including those supported by the German government, is available in German on the Bologna Webpage sponsored by the organization of German higher education institutions. See Hochschulrektorenkonferenz (HRK), Willkommen auf der Internetseite der Service-Stelle Bologna der Hochschulrektorenkonferenz, available at http://www.hrk-bologna.de/.Google Scholar

76 See, e.g., supra note 37 (German government press release following the 2005 Bologna Process Stocktaking Report); 2004 German National Report, supra note 74.Google Scholar

77 See, e.g., Diskussionsentwurf des Bundesministeriums der Justiz Entwurf eines Gesetzes zur Neuregelung des Rechtsberatungsrechts, (Rechtsdienstleistungsgesetz - RDG), available at http://www.anwaltverein.de/Rechtsberatungsgesetz/gesetzentwurf.pdf (last visited June 8, 2006)(Ministry of Justice issued a draft law that would narrow the lawyer's monopoly and allow others to do activities formerly reserved to lawyers); Verein, Deutscher Anwalt, Pressemitteilung 15/05, vom 31. März 2005: Ohne Anwälte keine umfassende Rechtsberatung - DAV zur Reform des Rechtsberatungsrechtes, available at http://www.anwaltverein.de/03/02/2005/15–05.html (last visited June 8, 2006) (commenting on the draft law).Google Scholar

78 See, e.g., Monopolkommission, Pressemitteilung (Bonn, 5. Juli 2006), availble at http://www.monopolkommission.de/haupt_16/presse_h16.pdf (last visited July 9, 2006); Monopolkommission, Mehr Wettbewerb auch im Dienstleistungssektor! Sechzehntes Hauptgutachten der Monopolkommission gemäß § 44 Abs. 1 Satz 1 GWB, 2004/2005, at Chapter VI, ¶1032, available at http://www.monopolkommission.de/haupt_16/kapitel06_h16.pdf (last visited July 9, 2006). On this point, the Commission stated:Google Scholar

Eine Erlaubnis zur außergerichtlichen Rechtsberatung kann aber nicht auf Diplom-Wirtschaftsjuristen beschränkt bleiben. Die Monopolkommission spricht sich deshalb dafür aus, auch Juristen mit erster Prüfung (erstem Staatsexamen) zur außergerichtlichen Rechtsberatung zuzulassen. Sollte es auch bei den juristischen Studiengängen zu einer Einführung des Bachelor/Master-Modells kommen, sollte die Erlaubnis zur außergerichtlichen Rechtsberatung bereits nach dem Bachelor-Abschluss einsetzen – möglicherweise verbunden mit der Anforderung eines Nachweises von praktischer Tätigkeit. Denn nur so kann die Anforderung des Bologna-Prozesses, dass bereits der Bachelor eine Berufsqualifikation vermittelt, erfüllt werden.Google Scholar

Id. The German Monopoly Commission is an independent body that is authorized by law to recommend legislative changes to the German government every two years. See Monopolkommission, Aufgaben, available at http://www.monopolkommission.de/index.html (last visited July 10, 2006). These recommendations follow in the wake of similar recommendations in the EU and in the United Kingdom. See European Commission, DG Competition, Competition Policy and Liberal Professions, available at http://ec.europa.eu/comm/competition/liberalization/conference/libprofconference.html (last visited June 8, 2006); United Kingdom Department for Constitutional Affairs, Legal Services Reform, available at http://www.dca.gov.uk/legalsys/lsreform.htm (last visited July 9, 2006).Google Scholar

79 See, e.g., Börzel, Tanja A. and Risse, Thomas, When Europe Hits Home: Europeanization and Domestic Change, 4 European Integration online Papers (2000) N^o 15, http://eiop.or.at/eiop/texte/2000-015a.htm (citing convergence theories).Google Scholar

80 See supra notes 21 (action lines) and 23 (2005 priority objectives) and accompanying text.Google Scholar

81 See, e.g., Symposium, Berlin, supra note 63; Terry, The Bologna Process and Legal Education, supra note 2, at §III(B).Google Scholar

82 For a discussion of the debates surrounding the 2003 reforms, see Keilmann, supra note 49, ⁸³ See, e.g., HRK, The Quality Assurance Project, available at http://www.hrk.de/eng/projekte_und_initiativen/121.php (last visited June 28, 2006)(noting that one of the topics addressed by Project Q is “the relationship between evaluation and accreditation.”).Google Scholar

84 2005 Report, Stocktaking, supra note 25, at pp. 16–17 (listing benchmarks for the quality assurance objective).Google Scholar

85 Communiqué, Bergen, supra note 4, at 5.Google Scholar

86 See supra note 45 for the 1998 federal Framework Act (which included evaluation) and Gesetz zur Errichtung einer Stiftung “Stiftung zur Akkreditierung von Studiengängen in Deutschland” Feb. 15, 2005, in Kraft getreten am 26 Feb. 2005, available at http://www.akkreditierungsrat.de/Stiftungsgesetz_050215.pdf (last visited July 3, 2006). An English translation of this document is available at http://www.kmk.org/doc/beschl/BS_VereinbarungundGesetzAkkreditierung_englisch.pdf [hereinafter “Establishment of a Foundation for the Accreditation of Study Courses in Germany”].Google Scholar

87 For additional information about accreditation initiatives in Germany, see Stiftung zur Akkreditierung von Studiengängen in Deutschland, available at http://www.akkreditierungsrat.de/; Terry, The Bologna Process and Legal Education, supra note 2, at §I(B)(2). For information about Project Q (the Quality Assurance Project) and evaluation initiatives in Germany, see HRK German Rectors’ Conference, The Quality Assurance Project, available at http://www.hrk.de/eng/projekte_und_initiativen/121.php (last visited July 3, 2006).Google Scholar

88 See supra notes 45, 86, and 87.Google Scholar

89 See Terry, The Bologna Process and Legal Education, supra note 2, at §III(A)(2)(citing the lack of this information on the HRK, KMK, DJFT, DJT, BRAK or DAV, or the German ELSA webpages, among others). The Akkreditierungsrat lists several subject-specific accreditation organizations on its website, but it does not list any legal studies-specific accrediting agencies. Akkreditierungsrat, Akkreditierungsagenturen, available at http://www.akkreditierungsrat.de/agenturen.htm. It is worth noting, however, that one cannot always tell from the name of the accrediting agency what programs it has accredited. For example, FIBAA, which is the Foundation for International Business Administration Accreditation, has accredited five bachelor of law degrees and five master's of law degrees. See Table 2, infra note 102 and accompanying text.Google Scholar

90 See, e.g., University of Cologne, Die Bachelor-/Master-Studienreform an der Universität zu Köln, available at http://www.uni-koeln.de/uni/images/aktuell_bamareform1.jpg (last visited June 14, 2006)(noting that quality assurance is phase 3 of the University of Cologne's implementation of the Bologna Process and will begin in academic year 2006–07).Google Scholar

91 See Email Letter from Dr. Andreas Nadler, Generalsekretär des Deutschen Juristentages e. V. to author, Jan. 16, 2006 (explains the cancellation of the program scheduled to discuss the Bologna Process; the cancelled program was not the regular biennial meeting of the DJT)(on file with author). The cancellation of this program was regrettable because the Deutscher Juristentag (DJT) provides a forum to discuss and study important topical issues and possible legal reforms and historically, its views have been influential with the courts and legislature. Deutscher Juristentag, Der Deutsche Juristentag, available at http://www.djt.de/content.php?lang=de&I=2 (last visited Jan. 14, 2006). The DJT has been in existence since 1860; it has approximately 8,000 members who come from all of the legal professions. Id.Google Scholar

92 Deutscher Juristen-Fakultätentag, Grundständige Bachelor- und Master-Studiengänge an den Juristischen Fakultäten/Fachbereichen, Stand 28. Februar 2006, http://www.jura.uni-muenchen.de/einrichtungen/fakultaetentag/aktuell/uebersichtbachelor.pdf (last visited July 12, 2006)[hereinafter DJFT Degree Chart].Google Scholar

93 Id.Google Scholar

94 Id. at 1. This chart showed bachelor degrees offered by a total of eight institutions, six of which were traditional public university law departments. Id. The institutions offering these bachelor degrees included the Universities of 1) Bremen; 2) Frankfurt an der Oder; 3) Greifswald; 4) Hamburg; 5) Münster; 6) Osnabrück; and 7) Bucerius Law School and 8) Hagen Fern Universität. Compare id. with Mitglieder des Deutschen Juristen-Fakultätentages (May 2006), available at http://www.jura.uni-muenchen.de/einrichtungen/fakultaetentag/mitglieder/mitglied.htm (last visited June 13, 2006)(lists 43 members of the DJFT, which is the voluntary organization of the law faculties at German public universities, and at the (private) Bucerius Law School and the Fern Universität Hagen)[hereinafter DJFT Members].Google Scholar

95 Id. According to the DJFT, the institutions offering master's of law degrees included the Universities of: 1) Bremen; 2) Frankfurt an der Oder; 3) Greifswald (which awards two master's degrees); and 4) Hamburg. Id.Google Scholar

96 The six agencies that had been accredited as of June 2006 included: 1)Agentur für Qualitätssicherung durch Akkreditierung von Studiengängen – AQAS; 2) Akkreditierungsagentur für Studiengänge der Ingenieurwissenschaften, der Informatik, der Naturwissenschaften und der Mathematik (ASIIN); 3) Akkreditierungsagentur für Studiengänge im Bereich Heilpädagogik, Pflege, Gesundheit und Soziale Arbeit e.V. (AHPGS); 4) Akkreditierungs-, Certifizierungs- und Qualitätssicherungs-Institut (ACQUIN); 5) Foundation for International Business Administration Accreditation (FIBAA); and 6) Zentrale Evaluations- und Akkreditierungsagentur Hannover (ZEvA). Akkreditierungsagenturen, available at http://www.akkreditierungsrat.de/agenturen.htm.Google Scholar

97 It is possible that the law department would not be given a choice by its university about which accrediting agency to use. But if the law department knew which agency it preferred, it would then be in a position to lobby its university in favor of a particular accreditation agency.Google Scholar

98 A cross-check system could be useful because in the past, there have been some discrepancies in data. For example, in June 2006, the websites of the accrediting agencies listed master's degrees offered in Hanover, Düsseldorf and Frankfurt am Main, none of which was listed on the DJFT chart. Compare supra note 95 with infra note 109.Google Scholar

99 See HRK, The guide to Degree Programmes of German Higher Education Institutions, available at http://81.169.169.236/kompass/xml/index_stud_en.htm (last visited June 24, 2006).Google Scholar

100 Id. Examples of universities that now offer an accredited bachelor of law program but not a Staatsexamen law degree include the Universität Kassel and the Universität Oldenburg. Id. This information is not available from a single search of the HRK database but requires two separate searches to learn whether a university that offers a bachelor of laws degree also offers the traditional legal education that allows one to take the Staatsexamen. In addition to this difficulty, the HRK database includes multiple entries for “law” and many specialties which can make it difficult to come up with consistent data.Google Scholar

101 As of June 2006, the DJFT had forty-three members. See DJFT Members, supra note 94. Table 2 refers to forty-one traditional public university DJFT members. This group of forty-one DJFT institutions excludes the Bucerius Law School, which is a private institution and therefore not accredited by the Akkrediterungs-approved agencies, and excludes the Fern Universität Hagen because its graduates are not eligible to sit for the Staatsexamen.Google Scholar

102 This Table also appears in Terry, The Bologna Process: A German Case Study, supra note 2. That article includes lengthy footnotes that identify each of the fifteen accredited bachelor of law degrees and each of the twenty-one accredited master's of law degrees.Google Scholar

103 As of June 2006, the DJFT had forty-three members. See DJFT Members, supra note 94. This column indicates the number of accredited bachelor degrees offered by the forty-one traditional public university institutions that are members of the Deutschen Juristen-Fakultätentages (DJFT). See supra, note 101. The DJFT institutions (other than Bucerius and Fern-Uni Hagen) offering accredited bachelor of law degrees included: 1) bachelor of law (LL.B.) at Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität Greifswald (a DJFT member); 2) Comparative and European Law (LL.B.) at Universität Oldenburg / Universität Bremen (Bremen is a DJFT member but Oldenburg is not a DJFT member); and 3) Wirtschaftsrecht (LL.B.) at the Universität Osnabrück (a DJFT member). See Zentrale Evaluations-Und Akkreditierungsagentur Hannover (ZEVA), Akkreditierte Bachelorstudiengänge, available at http://www.zeva.uni-hannover.de/akkred/studieng/bachelor.htm (last visited June 25, 2006). For information on the non-DJFT institutions offering such degrees, see Terry, supra note 2.Google Scholar

104 As of June 2, 2006, the Agentur für Qualitätssicherung durch Akkreditierung von Studiengängen (AQAS) had accredited eight master of law degrees, four of which were offered by a single traditional public university DJFT member – the University of Münster. See AQAS, e.v., Statistik, available at http://www.aqas.de/kategorie/statistik/ (last visited June 25, 2006) (University of Münster offers four accredited master's degrees: 1) Steuerwissenschaften (Master of Laws); 2) Mergers and Acquisitions (Master of Laws/Executive Master of Business Administration); 3) Versicherungsrecht (Master of Laws); 4) Real Estate Law (Master of Law) Since it is not a traditional public university DJFT member that offers the offers an education entitling one to sit for the Staatsexamen, I have not included the Bachelor of Laws offered by the FernUniversität Hagen or the Europäischer Gewerblicher Rechtsschutz (Master of Laws (LL.M.) offered by the FernUniversität in Hagen.Google Scholar

105 The Akkreditierungs-, Certifizierungs- und Qualitätssicherungs-Institut (ACQUIN) has accredited two master's of law programs, one of which is offered by a DJFT member. See ACQUIN, Akkreditierte Studiengänge – Master/Magister, http://www.acquin.org/acquincms/index/accred-mastloc-action (last visited June 25, 2006) (Informationsrecht - Master of Laws at the Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf).Google Scholar

106 The Zentrale Evaluations-Und Akkreditierungsagentur Hannover (ZEVA) has accredited five bachelor of law programs, three of which are offered by DJFT members. See ZEVA, Akkreditierte Bachelorstudiengänge, available at http://www.zeva.uni-hannover.de/akkred/studieng/bachelor.htm (last visited June 25, 2006) (1) bachelor of law (LL.B.) at Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität Greifswald; 2) Comparative and European Law (LL. B.) at Universität Oldenburg / Universität Bremen(Bremen is a DJFT member but Oldenburg is not a DJFT member); and 3) Wirtschaftsrecht (LL. B.) at the Universität Osnabrück. Although the numbers in the first ZEVA column do not, at first glance, appear consistent with the numbers in the second ZEVA column, these numbers are accurate. Six institutions offer five degrees because one degree is offered jointly by the Universities of Bremen and Osnabruck. Bremen is a DJFT Member, but Osnabruck is not. See supra; DJFT Members, supra note 94.Google Scholar

107 See supra notes 94 and 106 (listing the DJFT Members offering ZEVA-accredited degrees and explaining which DJFT institutions have been included).Google Scholar

108 ZEVA has accredited six masters of law programs, four of which are offered by traditional public university DJFT members. See ZEVA, Akkreditierte Masterstudiengänge, http://www.zeva.uni-hannover.de/akkred/studieng/master.htm (last visited June 25, 2006) (listing these accredited master's degrees offered by DJFT members: 1) Master of Laws (LL. M.) Weiterbildungsstudiengang Law and Finance at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität, Frankfurt am Main; 2)Master of Laws (LL. M.) Laws and Economics at the Universität Hamburg; 3) Master of Laws (LL. M.) Rechtsinformatik at the Universität Hannover; 4) Master of Laws (LL. M.) Comparative and European Law at the Universität Oldenburg / Universität Bremen (Bremen is a DJFT member but Oldenburg is not)).Google Scholar

109 Although the numbers in the last three columns of the ZEVA row may appear inconsistent, they are not. Seven institutions offer six accredited master's degrees because one degree is offered jointly by the Universities of Bremen and Osnabruck. Bremen is a DJFT Member, but Osnabruck is not. See DJFT Members, supra note 94.Google Scholar

110 See supra note 94.Google Scholar

111 Seven percent is the result one achieves if one divides the 3 DJFT degree-granting institutions by 41, which is the total number of traditional university DJFT members. I did not include the private Bucerius Law School or the distance-education program at the FernUniversität in Hagen in the denominator because I did not count the accredited bachelor of law programs offered by these institutions.Google Scholar

112 See supra note 100.Google Scholar

113 One of the programs is split by a traditional university DJFT member (the University of Bremen) and a non-DJFT member (the University of Oldenburg). In calculating the percentages, I divided the nine DJFT institutions by the 21 degree-granting programs (since there 21 not 22 degree programs).Google Scholar

114 See supra note 104.Google Scholar

115 See Table 2, supra note 102.Google Scholar

116 Fifteen percent is the result of dividing the 6 DJFT degree granting institutions by 41, which is the total number of traditional university DJFT members. The private Bucerius Law School, distance-education program at the FernUniversität in Hagen, and accredited master of law degree programs offered by these institutions are not included.Google Scholar

117 A list of existing accreditation and evaluation agencies is available on EvaNet. See Evanet, Nationale Akkreditierung, Evaluation und Qualitätsentwicklung, available at http://evanet.his.de/evanet/links/linkpool_AEQD.php#AAEe (last visited June 14, 2006). (at the University of Cologne, accreditation is phase 3 of the Bologna Process implementation and is scheduled to begin during Winter Semester 2006–07, after preparation that occurred during academic year 2005–06). See supra note 90.Google Scholar

118 In the U.S., for example, the primary law school accreditation agency is the American Bar Association. See ABA Section of Legal Education and Admissions to the Bar, Standards for Approval of Law Schools 2005–06, http://www.abanet.org/legaled/standards/standards.html. See also Association of American Law Schools (AALS), Bylaws and Executive Committee Regulations Pertaining To The Requirements of Membership (August 2005), available at http://www.aals.org/about_handbook_requirements.php (The AALS, is a professional organization with membership requirements, acting in an equivalent manner to an accreditation agency); AALS, What is the AALS, available at http://www.aals.org/about.php. Compare UK Centre for Legal Education, Assessment in Legal Education, available at http://www.ukcle.ac.uk/resources/assessment/index.html (the UK Centre, founded in 2000, does not conduct assessments but collects information about assessment models, case studies, and literature).Google Scholar

119 European Law Faculties Association, available at http://www.elfa-afde.org/html/about_members.html (last visited Nov. 17, 2005) (listing 19 German members, as of August 9, 2005). Although ELFA is not an accrediting agency nor does it have stringent membership requirements as does the AALS, supra, ELFA is engaged in some quality assurance efforts. See, e.g., Quality Assurance, Accreditation and European Legal Education, available at http://elixir.bham.ac.uk/quaacas/index.htm (last visited Nov. 17, 2005) (describing ELFA QUAACAS Committee). ELFA is generally supportive of the Bologna Process, which includes a quality assurance objective, although ELFA has indicated its areas of concern. See European Law Faculties Association, For a European Space of Legal Education: ELFA statement concerning the Bologna-Declaration of the European Ministers of Education of 1999 (adopted May 31, 2002), available at http://www.elfa-afde.org/PDF/Sorbonne%20Bologna/position%20paper%20May%202002%20English.pdf (last visited Nov. 23, 2005) (“ELFA is very much in favour of the spirit underlying the Bologna Declaration, namely a general concern about the quality, transparency and mobility in European (legal) education, an increase in competitiveness of European institutions of higher education in a globalising world, the achievement of greater compatibility and comparability of systems of higher education, a reduction of student drop-up rates in law faculties, and an orientation of university degrees also towards needs of the changing labour market, whilst always maintaining high standards in academic education.”)Google Scholar

120 The IALS was formed in October 2005. See International Association of Law Schools, available at http://www.ialsnet.org (explains its history and mission as follows:Google Scholar

“The idea for an international association of law schools emerged from several meetings of legal educators from around the world who recognized the growing inter-relationship of norms from transnational legal systems. The first such meeting, held in Florence, Italy, in 2000 consisted of 50 invited legal educators from twenty-seven countries. This meeting led to additional meetings of international legal educators, the most recent of which was held May 2004 in Hawaii. At this meeting, 130 legal educators from forty-seven different countries unanimously adopted a resolution to form a new international association of law schools. In May 2005 a select group of legal educators from fourteen different countries, representing all types of the world's legal systems, gathered in Istanbul, Turkey, and agreed to the terms of a charter for the International Association of Law Schools. In October 2005, the IALS was incorporated under the laws of the District of Columbia in the United States of America.”). Id.Google Scholar

121 Deutschen Juristen-Fakultätentages, Beschlüsse des 86. Deutschen Juristen-Fakultätentages (26 May 2006), available at http://www.jura.uni-muenchen.de/einrichtungen/fakultaetentag/beschluesse.pdf (last visited July 12, 2006) (International Association of Law Schools (DJFT 2006/VI) Der Deutsche Juristen-Fakultätentag tritt der International Association of Law Schools als Beobachter bei.).Google Scholar

122 See Akkreditierungsrat, Akkreditierungsagenturen, supra note 89, (listing agencies that have been accredited by the Akkreditierungsrat.)Google Scholar

123 See supra note 73, and accompanying text.Google Scholar

124 The National Union of Students in Germany, Failing Bologna, State of Implementation of the Bologna Objectives in Germany: Students’ National Report for the Berlin Summit on Higher Education, 18 (2003), available at http://www.esib.org/BPC/Countries/Germany/natrep_final.pdf (hereinafter fzs, Failing Bologna).Google Scholar

125 Id.Google Scholar

126 Id.Google Scholar

127 See supra note 36, and accompanying text.Google Scholar

128 See American Bar Association Section of Legal Education and Admissions to the Bar, 2005–06 ABA Questionnaires, available at http://www.abanet.org/legaled/questionnaire/questionnairedocuments.html (last visited Jan. 14, 2006) (the current version of the questionnaire that U.S. law schools must complete before their sabbatical (7 year) ABA accreditation visit); For information about the current AALS membership requirements and site evaluation, see http://www.aals.org/about_handbook.php (last visited April 4, 2006).Google Scholar

129 U.S. law school rankings appear annually in print in the magazine U.S. News and World Report. Online versions are also available. See http://www.usnews.com/usnews/edu/grad/rankings/law/lawindex_brief.php (last visited June 8, 2006). U.S. law schools are very concerned with the rankings that appear in U.S. News and World Report. See, e.g., Caron, Paul L., Symposium: The Next Generation of Law School Rankings, 81 Indiana Law Journal (IndLJ) 1 (2006). The majority of the deans of ABA-accredited U.S. law schools have written a joint letter to prospective applicants, warning them of the flaws in ranking systems (such as that used by U.S. News and World Report). This letter has been posted on the website of the Law School Admission Council. See LSAC, Law School Deans Speak Out About Rankings (April 2005), available at http://www.lsac.org/pdfs/2005–2006/RANKING2005-newer.pdf (last visited Jan. 16, 2006).Google Scholar

130 See, e.g., Der Deutsche Akademische Austauschdienst (DAAD), Research Rankings in Germany, available at http://www.daad.de/deutschland/forschung/forschungs-rankings/04675.en.html (last visited June 19, 2006) (“Recent years have seen competition in Europe, and especially in Germany, take on new forms and a new quality; in particular, in connection with the establishment of the European Research Area…. This is why recent times have seen ranking lists experience a boom in Germany. Ever more and new attempts to rank excellence are coming onto the market all the time.”)Google Scholar

131 German university rankings are conducted annually by Der Zeit and the Centrum für Hochschulentwicklung (CHE). See Centrum für Hochschulentwicklung, CHE-Ranking, available at http://www.che.de/cms/?getObject=2&getName=CHE-Ranking&getLang=de (last visited June 8, 2006). If there is an increase in the ability of universities to selectively admit students, these rankings may assume increased importance in the future. See supra note 48; Terry, The Bologna Process: A German Case Study, supra note 2, at §I(B)(3).Google Scholar

132 Wissenschaftsrat, Recommendations for Rankings in the System of Higher Education and Research Part 1: Research, Drs. 6285–04, (Nov. 12, 2004), available at http://www.wissenschaftsrat.de/texte/6285-04.pdf (last visited June 13, 2006). This report includes a survey of historic and existing ranking systems in Germany, reviews the ranking systems in other countries, including the U.S., U.K. and Netherlands (including the U.S. News and World Report rankings), recommends that Germany begin a pilot study and recommends that Germany perform international benchmarking with the U.K. and Netherlands. Id. at p. 57. In addition to the CHE and Wissenschaftsrat rankings, other leading rankings include those of the Die Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) and the Humboldt Foundation. See DAAD, Research Rankings in Germany, supra note 130.Google Scholar

133 Wissenschaftsrat, , Arbeitsprogramm, Pilotstudie Forschungsrating, available at http://www.wissenschaftsrat.de/Arbeitsprogramm/arbeitsprogramm.html (last visited June 13, 2006) (Wissenschaftsrat begin its pilot study on research rankings with the fields of Chemistry and Sociology in July 2005, a report is expected sometime in 2007). Id.Google Scholar

134 See German Ministry of Education and Research, Initiative for Excellence Competition, available at http://www.bmbf.de/en/1321.php (last visited June 8, 2006).Google Scholar

135 2005 Stocktaking Report, supra note 25, at 20–21 (listing benchmarks for the recognition objective).Google Scholar

136 Id. at 47–48 (Germany's stocktaking results). For additional information, see, e.g., HRK, ECTS / Modularisierung, available at http://www.hrk-bologna.de/bologna/de/home/2000.php (last visited June 8, 2006) (contains extensive, non-law specific information on ECTS); HRK, Diploma Supplement, available at http://www.hrk-bologna.de/bologna/de/home/1997.php (last visited June 8, 2006).Google Scholar

137 fzs, Failing Bologna, supra note 124, at 9 (“The National Union of Students in Germany (fzs) is deeply concerned about the incoherent implementation of the Bologna Process in Germany. The objectives and measures of the Bologna Process are not given equal importance. Instead, there is political focus on isolated measures that in most cases are not properly implemented.”)Google Scholar

138 Id. at 11.Google Scholar

139 Id. at 13.Google Scholar

140 Compare Deutscher Juristen-Fakultätentag, Prüfung von Schlüsselqualifikationen, available at http://www.jura.uni-muenchen.de/einrichtungen/fakultaetentag/aktuell/sq.pdf (last visited Nov. 25, 2005); Deutscher Juristen-Fakultätentag, Angebote der Universitäten zur Examensvorbereitung, available at http://www.jura.uni-muenchen.de/einrichtungen/fakultaetentag/85/angebotexamen.pdf (last visited Nov. 25, 2005). See Terry, The Bologna Process: A German Case Study, supra note 2, at §III(A)(3) (noting that the HRK Bologna Information Center website has collected a tremendous amount of information, including some that is department-specific, but that none of the data addresses the use of ECTS or the Diploma Supplement by German law departments nor is such data available on the webpages of the Deutscher Juristen-Fakultätentag (DJFT), the European Law Faculties Association or the European Law Students Association (ELSA). The Deutscher Juristen-Fakultätentag (DJFT) webpage, for example, includes information relating to the 2003 legal education reforms, including the new curricular requirements, does not include any information about the ECTS credits offered for various courses or information about the implementation of the Diploma Supplement.)Google Scholar

141 See supra note 92.Google Scholar

142 See Action Line #4, supra note 21.Google Scholar

143 Id. This pressure is likely to come not just from the Bologna Process, but from the European Court of Justice. Christine Case C-313/01, Morgenbesser v. Consiglio dell'Ordine degli avvocati di Genova, 2003 ECR I-13467, 1 C.M.L.R. 24, Celex No. 601J0313. This case held that a bar had to have a recognition procedure to evaluate whether to admit to its training-apprenticeship program a woman who had completed law studies in another country, but was not yet a licensed lawyer. Similar principles might require university law departments to have procedures in place to decide whether to accept into their degree programs students who began their studies elsewhere.Google Scholar

144 Not all commentators have been supportive of the idea of using recognition principles in the field of law. See, e.g., JUMIKO November 2005 Resolution, supra note 61, at ¶2 (“Das erfordert nach wie vor juristische Ausbildungssysteme nationalen Zuschnitts. Diese notwendige Ausrichtung der Ausbildungssysteme auf die nationalen Rechtsordnungen lässt eine generelle Gleichbehandlung von nationalen und internationalen rechtswissenschaftlichen Abschlüssen und Studienleistungen nicht zu.”). On the other hand, German legal educators and regulators have a limited ability to resist recognition given the European Court of Justice Morgenbesser case, supra note 143 and the European Union directives that already incorporate recognition principles and permit lawyers from one EU country to practice in another EU country. For additional information on these directives, See Terry Interview with “Crossing the Bar.Com” about NAFTA, GATS, and the EU Regulation of Lawyers (May and Dec. 2001), available at http://www.personal.psu.edu/faculty/l/s/lst3/Electronic%20Interview%20of%20Professor%20Laurel%20Terry.doc (last visited June 8, 2006).Google Scholar

145 See, e.g., Dauner-Lieb, supra note 67, at 5 (arguing in favor of a four-year bachelor of law degree); HRK, Statistiken zur Hochschulpolitik, Sommersemester 2006, No. 1/2006 (May 2006) at para. 15–16, available at http://www.hrk.de/de/download/dateien/HRK_Doku1_2006_SoSe2006.pdf (noting that some institutions offer a three year bachelor degree whereas other institutions offer a four year bachelor degree and that it is difficult to compare and evaluate the new bachelor degree since the length of study time is different and since some bachelor degrees are offered by universities and some are offered by the Fachhochschule) (hereinafter 2006 German Report on the Introduction of Bachelor and Master Degrees).Google Scholar

146 See, e.g., Diploma Supplement Funktion - Inhalte – Umsetzung, Service-Stelle Bologna, Beiträge zur Hochschulpolitik, p. 326 (2005), available at http://www.hrk-bologna.de/bologna/de/download/dateien/DS-pub_internetversion.pdf (last visited Nov. 15, 2005). This document includes the reports and presentations from four conferences on the Diploma Supplement that the HRK sponsored during Spring 2005, together with a summary of the discussions and additional relevant working materials. Id. at 2. The German-language version of the Diploma Supplement is found on pages 284–286.Google Scholar

147 See supra note 138, (citing fzs report complaining about the implementation of the Diploma Supplement benchmark).Google Scholar

148 See supra note 38, and accompanying text.Google Scholar

149 See Report, Stocktaking, supra note 25, at 40–41, 78–79.Google Scholar

150 See generally Terry, The Bologna Process: A German Case Study, supra note 2, at §III (describing the information available on the websites of the HRK, DJFT, BRAK, DAV, ELFA and ELSA, none of which is specifically focused on law-specific issues related to the development of the 2007 Bologna Process Stocktaking Report or the other Bologna Process Action Lines).Google Scholar

151 For numerous conferences and papers listed on the HRK, Service-Stelle Bologna webpage, see, e.g., supra note 75. HRK, Tagungsdokumentation 2004 – 2006, available at http://www.hrk-bologna.de/bologna/de/home/1945.php (last visited June 20, 2006) (the May 2006 Vierte Tagung included information on mobility (action line 4) and other topics).Google Scholar

152 The German legal profession faces two different sets of issues with respect to the two-degree cycle bachelor-master issue. The first issue is whether German institutions should offer a bachelor of law or master's of law degree in addition to or in lieu of the Staatsexamen/Diplom-Jurist degree. The second issue is the effect of a bachelor and master degree system on the lawyer qualification issue, including the type of degree that is required to enable one to qualify as a lawyer. Although there obviously is some overlap between these issues, they are separate issues. I recommend that when debating the Bologna Process two-degree cycle issue, German commentators clearly indicate whether they are addressing the lawyer qualification system or the merits of adding new degrees to the educational system.Google Scholar

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Living with the Bologna Process: Recommendations to the German Legal Education Community from a U.S. Perspective

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