Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-g8jcs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-30T20:44:21.199Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

International Trade and Human Rights: An Unfinished Debate

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 March 2019

Extract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

We are living in a world in which the moral legitimacy of cultures, religions, ideologies, and the practices of states, international organizations, and even corporations is being measured against human rights norms. The moral significance of and practical respect for human rights has grown so much that human rights have been described as a global religion, and a new standard for civilization. International trade, a popular and much debated issue of our time, is one of those phenomena that is currently being measured against the standards of human rights. Leading experts remain divided about whether global trade is good or bad for human rights. There are those who are utterly convinced that the world trade regime has a mutual basis with human rights and see potential in the growth of one as a positive sign for the other. There are also those who, on the other hand, are equally convinced that human rights and international trade regimes are in a relationship of enmity.

Type
Developments
Copyright
Copyright © 2013 by German Law Journal GbR 

References

1 Heard, Andrew, Human Rights: Chimeras in Sheep's Clothing?, Simon Fraser Univ. Online (1997), http://www.sfu.ca/~aheard/intro.html.Google Scholar

2 See Donnelly, Jack, Human Rights: A New Standard of Civilization?, 74 Int'l Aff. 1, 1 (1998).Google Scholar

3 See Petersmann, Ernst-Ulrich, Human Rights and International Trade law: Defining and Connecting the Two Fields, in Human Rights and International Trade 29, 3134 (Thomas Cottier, Joost Pauwelyn & Elisabeth Bürgi eds., 2005) (attempting to prove that, and explain how, the values informing human rights and the general principles of international trade are similar); GAO, Pengcheng, Rethinking the Relationship Between the WTO and International Human Rights, 8 Rich. J. of Global L. & Bus. 397, 398–99 (2009) (arguing that the value of non-discrimination underlie both regimes); Ernst-Ulrich Petersmann, The WTO Constitution and Human Rights, 3 J. Int'l Econ. L. 19, 22–23 (2000); Ernst-Ulrich Petersmann, Time for a United Nations ‘Global Compact’ for Integrating Human Rights into the Law of Worldwide Organizations: Lessons from European Integration, 13 Eur. J. Int'l L. 621, 621 (2002) [hereinafter Petersmann, Lessons from European Integration]; Ernst-Ulrich Petersmann, Human Rights, International Economic law and Constitutional Justice: A Rejoinder, 19 Eur. J. Int'l L. 955, 955 (2008) [hereinafter Petersmann, A Rejoinder]. Google Scholar

4 See Alston, Philip, Resisting the Merger and Acquisition of Human Rights by Trade Law: A Reply to Petersmann, 13 Eur. J. Int'l L. 815, 815 (2002); Robert Howse & Makau Mutua, Protecting Human Rights in a Global Economy: Challenges for the World Trade Organization, in Human Rights in Development: Yearbook 1999/2000 51, 51 (Hugo Stokke & Arne Tostensen eds., The Millennium Ed. 2001); Robert Howse, Human Rights in the WTO: Whose Rights, What Humanity? Comment on Petersmann, 13 Eur. J. Int'l L. 651, 651 (2002); Frank J. Garcia, Symposium: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights at 50 and the Challenge of Global Markets: Trading Away the Human Rights Principle, 25 Brook. J. Int'l L. 51, 51 (1999); Jagdish Bhagwati, Afterword: The Question of Linkage, 96 Am. J. Int'l L. 126, 126 (2002); Andrew T.F. Lang, Re-Thinking Trade and Human Rights, 15 Tul. J. Int'l & Comp. L. 335, 335 (2007).Google Scholar

5 See Seymour, Dan & Pincus, Jonathan, Human Rights and Economics: The Conceptual Basis for their Complementarity, 26 Dev. Pol'y Rev. 387, 387–89 (2008) (pointing out that they have differences in their theoretical approach and even in their lexicon).Google Scholar

6 See General Agreement on Tariffs And Trade, preamble, Oct. 30, 1947, 61 Stat. A-11, 55 U.N.T.S. 194 [hereinafter GATT]; Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, Apr. 15, 1994, 1867 U.N.T.S. 154 [hereinafter the Marrakesh Agreement], available at http://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/04-wto_e.htm. For works capturing the gist of these debates, see Peter Van Den Bossche, The Law and Policy of the World Trade Organization: Text, Cases and Materials 19–22 (2005); Alan O. Sykes, International Trade and Human Rights: An Economic Perspective, in International Trade and HUMAN Rights: Foundations AND Conceptual Issues 69, 6972 (Frederick M. Abbott, Christine Breining-Kaufmann & Thomas Cottier eds., 2006); Graham Dunkley, Free Trade: Myths, Reality and Alternatives 12–17, passim (2004) (providing a summary of critiques and alternative paradigms).Google Scholar

7 See Seymour, & Pincus, , supra note Error! Bookmark not defined., at 389–92 (stating that economics’ focus on utility does not give much attention to moral rectitude of economic decisions); Karen Ho, Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street 36, 122–29 (2009) (noting that from the perspective of economics, rational human action—the assumption of “homo economicus”— leads to the practical principles of “maximizing shareholder value” and maximizing profits which take precedence over all other considerations including moral ones, based upon economic grounds); William Lazonick & Mary O'Sullivan, Maximizing Shareholder Value: A New Ideology for Corporate Governance, 29 Econ. & Soc'y 13, 13 (2000); Herbert Gintis & Rakesh Khurana, Corporate Honesty and Business Education: A Behavioral Model, in Moral Markets: The Critical Role of Values in the Economy 300, 300 (Paul J. Zak ed., 2008); David Crowther & Lez Rayman-Bacchus, Perspectives on Corporate Social Responsibility (2004) (providing an alternative model to this view that emphasizes corporate social responsibility and “stakeholder,'” not “shareholder,” value); Sybille Sachs & Edwin Rühli, Stakeholders Matter: A New Paradigm for Strategy in Society (2011); Joseph F. Johnston, Jr., Natural Law and the Fiduciary Duties of Business Managers, in Business and Religion: A Clash of Civilizations? 279, 292–95 (Nicholas Capaldi ed., 2005); David E. Hawkins, Corporate Social Responsibility: Balancing Tomorrow's Sustainability and Today's Profitability (2006) (providing the environmental aspect of the same view).Google Scholar

8 See generally Gerhard Ernst & Jan-Christoph Heilinger, The Philosophy of Human Rights (2012).Google Scholar

9 See generally Sykes, supra note 6, at 74–76; JoonBeom Pae, Sovereignty, Power, and Human Rights Treaties: An Economic Analysis, 5 Nw. J. Int'l Hum. Rts. 71, 71 (2006); Tarek F. Maassarani, WTO-GATT, Economic Growth, and the Human Rights Trade-Off, 28 Envtl. L. & Pol'y J. 269, 269 (2005).Google Scholar

10 We first need to clarify a set of related words used in relation to sanctions that may cause confusion if left for the reader to define at will. Literature on the subject use different, but related, words such as “embargo,” “sanction,” “action,” “trade measures,” “trade restrictions,” “trade related action,” “human rights related sanctions,” and similar words and expressions to describe one common phenomenon. In the context of this comment these usages are meant to describe any actions or steps taken by members of the WTO which might conflict with their obligations under the agreements of the WTO. For different usages of the word, see Gudrun Monika Zagel, WTO & Human Rights: Examining Linkages and Suggesting Convergence 6–9 (Int'l Dev. L. Org., Voices of Dev. Jurists Paper Ser. Vol. 2, No. 2, 2005), available at http://www.worldtradelaw.net/articles/zagelhumanrights.pdf; Sarah H. Cleveland, Human Rights Sanctions and International Trade: A Theory of Compatibility, 5 J. Int'l Econ. L. 133, 189 (2002); Carlos Manuel Vászquez, Trade Sanctions and Human Rights—Past, Present, and Future, 6 J. Int'l Econ. L. 797 passim (2003) (distinguishing between general trade sanctions and tailored sanctions).Google Scholar

11 See Universal Declaration of Human Rights, art. 25(1), G.A. Res 217 (III) A, U.N. Doc. A/RES/217(III) (Dec. 10, 1948) [hereinafter UDHR] (stating “[e]veryone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family”); World Health Organization, Constitution of the World Health Organization, preamble, Official Record World Health Org. 2, 100 (July 22, 1946), available at http://apps.who.int/gb/bd/PDF/bd47/EN/constitution-en.pdf (“The enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health is one of the fundamental rights of every human being. …”); International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, art. 12(1), G.A. Res. 2200A (XXI) A, U.N. Doc. A/RES/2200A(XXI) (Jan. 3, 1976); Organization of American States, American Declaration on the Rights and Duties of Man, art. XI (1948); The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, art. 5(e), (iv), G.A. Res. 2106 (XX) A, U.N. Doc. A/RES/2106(XX) (Dec. 21, 1965); Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women, art. 11.1(f), G.A. Res. 34/180, 12, U.N. Doc. A/RES/34/180 (Dec. 18, 1979); The Convention on the Rights of the Child, arts. 17, 2325, 32, G.A. Res. 44/25, U.N. Doc. A/RES/44/25 (Nov. 20, 1989); African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, art. 16, June 27, 1981, OAU Doc. CAB/LEG/67/3, 21 I.L.M. 58 (“1. Every individual shall have the right to enjoy the best attainable state of physical and mental health. 2. States Parties to the present Charter shall take the necessary measures to protect the health of their people and to ensure that they receive medical attention when they are sick.”); Andrew Clapham & Mary Robinson, Realizing the Right to Health (2009); Eleanor D. Kinney, The International Human Right to Health: What Does This Mean for Our Nation and World?, 34 Ind. L. Rev. 1457, 1457 (2001); Steven D. Jamar, The International Human Right to Health, 22 S.U. L. Rev. 1, 1 (1994–1995); Andrew Clapham & Mary Robinson, Realizing the Right to Health (2009).Google Scholar

12 See General Comment No. 14, Comm'n on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Apr. 25, 2000May 12, 2000, E/C.12/2000/4, 22 Sess. (Aug. 11, 2000); African Comm'n on Human and Peoples’ Rights [ACmHPR], Soc. & Econ. Rights Action Ctr. & the Ctr. for Econ. & Soc. Rights v. Nigeria, Comm. 155/96, Oct. 2001, 15th AAR 2001–2002 Annex V, (2001); Resolution on Access to Health and Needed Medicines in Africa, African Comm'n on Human and Peoples’ Rights Res. 44/141 (Nov. 24, 2008); D v. United Kingdom, 24 Eur. Ct. H.R. at 423 (1997); Ostra v. Spain, 303-C Eur. Ct. H.R. (ser. A) (1994). For a brief review of both international and constitutional jurisprudence on the right to health, see Iain Byrne, Enforcing the Right to Health: Innovative Lessons from Domestic Courts, in Realizing the Right to Health 525, 525 (Andrew Clapham & Mary Robinson eds., 2009); Vincent Chetail & Gilles Giacca, Who Cares? The Right to Health of Migrants, in Realizing the Right to Health 224, 224 (Andrew Clapham & Mary Robinson eds., 2009).Google Scholar

13 See Appellate Body Report, European Communities—Measures Concerning Meat and Meat Products, WT/DS26/AB/R, WT/DS48/AB/R (Jan. 16, 1998) (adopted Feb. 13, 1998); Appellate Body Report, European Communities—Measures Affecting Asbestos and Products Containing Asbestos, WT/DS135/AB/R, (Mar. 12, 2001) (adopted Apr. 5, 2001); Tracey Epps, International Trade and Health Protection: A Critical Assessment of the WTO's SPS Agreement 10–15; Frederick M. Abbott, Editorial. The Enduring Enigma of TRIPS: A Challenge for the World Economic System, 1 J. Int'l Econ. L. 497, 501, 505 (2008).Google Scholar

14 Dommen, Caroline, Raising Human Rights Concerns in the World Trade Organization: Actors, Processes and Possible Strategies 24 Hum. Rts. Q. 1, 2430 (2002).Google Scholar

15 See generally Abbott, Frederick M., The ‘Rule of Reason’ and the Right to Health: Integrating Human Rights and Competition Principles in the Context of TRIPS, in Human Rights and International Trade 279, 279 (Thomas Cottier, Joost Pauwelyn & Elisabeth Bürgi eds., 2005); Gudrun Monika Zagel, The WTO and Trade-Related Human Rights Measures: Trade Sanctions vs. Trade Incentives, 9 Austrian Rev. of Int'l and Eur. L. 119, 119 (2004); Sarah Joseph, Trade and the Right to Health, in Realizing the Right to Health 359, 359 (Andrew Clapham & Mary Robinson eds., 2009); Phillip Countryman, International Trade and World Health Policy: Helping People Reach Their Full Potential, 21 Pace Int'l L. Rev. 241 passim (2009).Google Scholar

16 Alston, Philip & Katarina Tomaševski, The Right to Food (1984); Penny Overby, The Right to Food, 54 Sask. L. Rev. 19, 19 (1990).Google Scholar

17 See African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Soc. & Econ. Rights Action Ctr. & the Ctr. for Econ. & Soc. Rights v. Nigeria, Comm'n 155/96, Oct. 2001, 15th AAR 2001–2002 Annex V, (2001); Supreme Court of Nepal, Prakash Mani Sharma v. His Majesty's Gov't Cabinet Secretariat, Mar. 11, 2003, WP 2237/1990 (2003); People's Union for Civil Liberties v. Union of India & Ors, (2007) 2001 S.C.C. 196 (India); The Equality Court held at the High Court of South Africa, Kenneth George et al. v. Minister of Envtl. Aff. & Tourism, May, 02, 2007, EC 1/2005 (2007); Christophe Golay, The Right to Food and Access to Justice: Examples at the National, Regional and International Levels (2009) (providing a discussion of the domestic and international developments).Google Scholar

18 Chen, Ying, The Right to Food, 12 Eur. J.L. Ref. 158, 158 (2010).Google Scholar

19 See Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Human Rights and World Trade Agreements: Using General Exception Clauses to Protect Human Rights (2005), available at http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/WTOen.pdf; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2 Food and Agric. Org. of the United Nations, Agriculture, Trade and Food Security: Issues and Options in the WTO Negotiations from the Perspective of Developing Countries: Country case studies (2000) (providing descriptions of specific food security issues that farm workers in developing countries face in the context of liberalization); Anthony Cassimatis, Human Rights Related Trade Measures Under International law: The Legality of Trade Measures Imposed in Response to Violations of Human Rights Obligations Under General International law 429–30 (2007); Caitlin Firer, Free Trade Area of the Americas and the Right to Food in International Law, 1 U. St. Thomas L.J. 1054, 1054 (2004); Chris Downes, Must the Losers of free Trade go Hungry? Reconciling WTO Obligations and the Right to food, 47 Va. J. Int'l L. 619, 636640 (2007).Google Scholar

20 In recognition of this problem, the UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food has proposed ways in which to deal with the human rights consequences of land grabs. Olivier de Schutter, Special Rapporteur on the Right to food, Large-Scale Land Acquisitions and Leases: A Set of Core Principles and Measures to Address the Human Rights Challenge (June 11, 2009), available at http://www.oecd.org/site/swacmali2010/44031283.pdf.Google Scholar

21 Part of the problem is that the scientific and statistical method prevalent in economics does account for the micro-level effects on trade liberalization on families and individuals. See L. Alan Winters, Neil McCulloch & Andrew McKay, Trade Liberalization and Poverty: The Evidence So Far, 42 J. Econ. Lit. 72, 8997 (2004).Google Scholar

22 Servais, Jean-Michel, International Labour law 24 (2d ed. 2009). International labor law is one of the more complex international regimes, especially since the International Labour Organization (ILO) had sustained an intensive effort in its development. See Nicolas Valticos, The Sources of International Labour Law: Recent Trends, in International law and Its Sources: Liber Amicorum Maarten Bos 179, 179 (Wybo P. Heere ed., 1989); Shareen Hertel, Human Rights and the Global Economy: Bringing Labor Rights Back In, 24 Md. J. Int'l L. 283, 283 (2009).Google Scholar

23 See Polaski, Sandra, Protecting Labor Rights Through Trade Agreements: An Analytical Guide, 10 U.C. Davis J. Int'l L. & Pol'y 13, 13 (2003).Google Scholar

24 See Ratner, Steven R., Corporations and Human Rights: A Theory of Legal Responsibility, 111 Yale L.J. 443, 478– 479 (2001) (discussing how labor standards are affected and proposing responsibility of multi-national corporations, on top of nation-states, for upholding these standards).Google Scholar

25 See Chan, Anita & Ross, Robert J. S., Racing to the Bottom: International Trade Without a Social Clause, 24 Third World Q. 1011, 1011 (2003); Drusilla K. Brown, Labor Standards: Where Do They Belong on the International Trade Agenda?, 15 J. Econ. Persp. 89, 89 (2001).Google Scholar

26 See Beers, Cees van, Labour Standards and Trade Flows of OECD Countries, 21 The World Econ. 57, 57 (1998); Jai S. Mah, Core Labour Standards and Export Performance in Developing Countries, 20 The World Econ. 773, 773 (1997); Matthias Busse, Do Labor Standards Affect Comparative Advantage in Developing Countries?, 30 World Dev. 1921, 1921 (2002); Brown, supra note 25, at 89; Layna Mosley & Saika Uno, Racing to the Bottom or Climbing to the Top? Economic Globalization and Collective Labor Rights, 40 Comp. Pol. Stud. 923, 923 (2007).Google Scholar

27 See Panizzon, Marion, How Close Will GATS Get to Human Rights? 6 (N.C.C.R. Trade Reg., Working Paper No. 2006/14, 2006).Google Scholar

28 See UDHR, supra note 11, at art. 21, 29(2); Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, protocol I, art. 3, Sept. 3, 1953, Council of Europe Treaty Series (CETS) No. 005; Arts. of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, arts. 14(1), 21(2), 22(2) & 25, G.A. Res. 2200A (XXI) A, U.N. Doc. A/RES/2200A(XXI) (Dec. 16, 1966); Organization of American States, American Convention on Human Rights, art. 23, Nov. 22, 1969, B-32; African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, art. 13(1), June 27, 1981, OAU Doc. CAB/LEG/67/3, 21 I.L.M. 58.Google Scholar

29 See Henry J.Steiner & Alston, Philip, International Human Rights in Context: Law Politics and Morals 904–18 (2d ed. 2000); Susan Marks, The Riddle of all Constitutions: International Law, Democracy, and the Critique of Ideology 30 (2000); Brad R. Roth, Governmental Illegitimacy in International Law 253 (2000); Reginald Ezetah, The Right to Democracy: A Qualitative Inquiry, 22 Brook. J. Int'l L. 495, 495 (1997); Henry J. Steiner, Political Participation as a Human Right, 1 Harv. Hum. Rts. Y.B. 77, 77 (1988); Thomas M. Franck, The Emerging Right to Democratic Governance, 86 Am. J. Int'l L. 46, 46 (1992); Henry J. Steiner, Do Human Rights Require a Particular Form of Democracy?, in Democracy, the Rule of Law and Islam 193, 193 (Eugene Cotran & Adel Omar Sherif eds., 1999); Same Varayudej, A Right to Democracy in International Law: Its Implications for Asia, 12 Ann. Surv. of Int'l & Comp. L. 1, 1 (2006).Google Scholar

30 Fielding, Lois E., Taking the Next Step in the Development of New Human Rights: The Emerging Right of Humanitarian Assistance to Restore Democracy, 5 Duke J. Comp. & Int'l L. 329, 329 (1995); Malvina Halberstam, The Copenhagen Document: Intervention in Support of Democracy, 3 Harv. Int'l L.J. 143, 143 (1993); W. Michael Reisman, Sovereignty and Human Rights in Contemporary International Law, 84 Am. J. Int'l L. 866, 866 (1990); Anthony D'Amato, The Invasion of Panama Was a Lawful Response to Tyranny, 84 Am. J. Int'l L. 516, 516 (1990); David Wippman, Treaty-Based Intervention: Who Can Say No?, 62 U. Chi. L. Rev. 607, 607 (1995). For an argument criticizing these views, see Sarah A. Rumage, Panama and the Myth of Humanitarian Intervention in U.S. Foreign Policy: Neither Legal Nor Moral, Neither Just Nor Right, 10 Ariz. J. Int'l & Comp. L. 1, 1 (1993); W. Michael Reisman, Coercion and Self-Determination: Constructing Charter Article 2(4), 78 Am. J. Int'l L. 642, 642 (1984).Google Scholar

31 See generally Alfred C. Aman, Jr., The Democracy Deficit: Taming Globalization Through Law Reform, 75–86 (2004); Robert Howse, The WTO System: Law Politics and Legitimacy 57–73 (2007) (providing a critique of the ‘democratic deficiency’ thesis); Gregory Shaffer, The World Trade Organization Under Challenge: Democracy and the Law and Politics of the WTO's Treatment of Trade and Environment Matters, 25 Harv. Envtl. L. Rev. 1, 1 (2001).Google Scholar

32 Hoekman, Bernard, The WTO: Functions and Basic Principles, in Development, Trade, and the WTO: A Handbook 41, 41 (Bernard Hoekman, Aaditya Mattoo & Philip English eds., 2002); Nicola Bullard & Chanida Chanyapate, Ten Years of the WTO: Subordinating Development to Free Trade, in 2 Internationale Politik und Gesellschaft 21, 24 (2005).Google Scholar

34 Kuijper, Pieter Jan, WTO Institutional Aspects, in The Oxford Handbook of International Trade Law 79, 113–14 (Daniel Bethlehem et al. eds., 2009).Google Scholar

35 See Torres, Hector R., Reforming the International Monetary Fund—Why Its Legitimacy Is at Stake, 10 J. Int'l Econ. L. 434, 434 (2007) (providing similar democratic-deficit criticisms raised against the IMF).Google Scholar

36 Joseph, Sarah, Blame It on the WTO? A Human Rights Critique 53 (2011); Manfred Elsing, The World Trade Organization's Legitimacy Crisis: What does the Beast look like?, 41 J. World Trade 75, 8689 (2007); Elizabeth Smythe & Peter J. Smith, Legitimacy, Transparency, and Information Technology: The World Trade Organization in an era of Contentious Trade Politics, 12 Global Governance 31, 31 (2006).Google Scholar

37 The human rights regime constantly balances conflict between human rights. See Abadir Mohamed, The Human Rights Provisions of the FDRE Constitution in Light of the Theoretical Foundations of Human Rights 80–81 (Ethiopian Hum. Rts. L. Ser. Vol. 1, 2008); Theodor Meron, On a Hierarchy of International Human Rights, 80 Am. J. Int'l L. 1, 1 (1986); Tom Farer, The Hierarchy of Human Rights, 8 Am. U. J. Int'l L. & Pol'y 115, 115 (1992).Google Scholar

38 See the Marrakesh Agreement, supra note 6, para. 1, available at http://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/04-wto_e.htm.Google Scholar

39 Chetail, Vincent, Freedom of Movement and Transnational Migrations: A Human Rights Perspective, in Migration and International Legal Norms 47, 47 (T. Alexander Aleinikoff & Vincent Chetail eds., 2003).Google Scholar

40 See Petersmann, , supra note 3; see also Steve Charnovitz, Triangulating the World Trade Organization, 96 Am. J. Int'l L. 28–55 (2002).Google Scholar

41 Locke, John, a man who has earned a name for fathering human rights had: life, liberty, and property, in his mind when he wrote his theories on natural rights. See John Locke, Second Treatise of Government 118 (1962).Google Scholar

42 See Yu, Peter K., Reconceptualizing Intellectual Property Interests in a Human Rights Framework, 40 U.C. Davis L. Rev. 1039, 1039 (2007); UNESCO, Approaching Intellectual Property as a Human Right, 35 Copyright Bulletin No. 3 (2001), http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001255/125505e.pdf; Paul L.C. Torremans, Intellectual Property and Human Rights: Enhanced Edition of Copyright and Human Rights (2008); Laurence R. Helfer, Toward a Human Rights Framework for Intellectual Property, 40 U.C. Davis L. Rev. 971, 971 (2007).Google Scholar

43 See generally Christopher Harding, Uta Kohl & Salmon, Naomi, Human Rights in the Market Place: The Exploitation of Rights Protection by Economic Actors 200 (2008); Maya Hertig Randall, Commercial Speech Under the European Convention on Human Rights: Subordinate or Equal?, 6 Hum. Rts. L. Rev. 53, 53 (2006); A. Kamperman Sanders, Unfair Competition Law and the European Court of Human Rights: The Case of Hertel v. Switzerland and Beyond, 10 Fordham Intell. Prop. Media & Ent. L.J. 305, 305 (1999); Karl A. Boedecker, Fred W. Morgan & Linda Berns Wright, The Evolution of First Amendment Protection for Commercial Speech, 59 J. Mkt. 38, 38 (1995).Google Scholar

44 Citizens United v. Fed. Election Comm'n, 558 U.S. 310, 310, (2010); see also Richard L. Hasen, Citizens United and the Illusion of Coherence, 109 Mich. L. Rev. 581, 581 (2011); Woody R. Clermont, Business Associations Reign Supreme: The Corporatist Underpinnings of Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, 27 T.M. Cooley L. Rev. 477, 477 (2010); James Bopp, Jr., Joseph E. La Rue & Elizabeth M. Kosel, The Game Changer: Citizens United's Impact on Campaign Finance Law in General and Corporate Political Speech in Particular, 9 First Amend. L. Rev. 251, 260–63 (2011).Google Scholar

45 See Lipset, Seymour Martin, Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy, 53 Am. Pol. Sci. Rev. 69, 75 (1959); Phillips Cutright, National Political Development: Measurement and Analysis, 28 Am. Soc. Rev. 253–64 (1965) (providing empirical evidence to prove that economic development causes “political development” implying that the latter is synonymous with democratization); Arthur K. Smith, Socio-Economic Development and Political Democracy: A Causal Analysis, 13 Midwest J. Pol. Sci. 95–125 (1969); Donald J. McCrone & Charles F. Cnudde, Toward a Communications Theory of Democratic Political Development: A Causal Model, 61 Am. Pol. Sci. Rev. 72–79 (1967); Gabriel A. Almond & Sidney Verba, The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations 2–4 (1963); Mick Moor, Is Democracy Rooted in Material Prosperity?, in Democratization in the South: The Jagged Wave 37, 42 (Robin Luckham & Gordon White eds., 1996) (concluding that, although there is a lot of research showing a correlation between economic development and democratization, GNP and per-capita energy consumption show the strongest correlation).Google Scholar

46 See Marceau, Gabrielle, WTO Dispute Settlement and Human Rights, 13 Eur. J. Int'l L. 753, 753 (2002); see also Frank J. Garcia, Building a Just Trade Order for a New Millennium, 33 Geo. Wash. Int'l L. Rev. 1015, 10561058 (2001); Elissa Alben, Note, GATT and the Fair Wage: A Historical Perspective on the Labor-Trade link, 101 Colum. L. Rev. 1410, 1422 (2001); Robert Howse & Michael J. Trebilcock, Trade Policy and Labor Standards, 14 Minn. J. Global Trade 261, 289 (2005).Google Scholar

47 See Pauwelyn, Joost, The Role of Public International Law in the WTO: How Far Can We Go?, 95 Am. J. Int'l L. 535, 542 (2001); Stephen Joseph Powell, The Place of Human Rights Law in World Trade Organization Rules, 16 Fla. J. Int'l L. 219, 224 (2004).Google Scholar

48 See Amao, Olufemi O., Trade Sanctions, Human Rights and Multinational Corporations: The EU-ACP Context,32 Hastings Int'l & Comp. L. Rev. 379, 394400 (2009); Lorand Bartels, The WTO Legality of the EU's GSP Arrangement, 10 J. Int'l Econ. L. 869, 869 (2007); Barbara Brandtner & Allan Rosas, Human Rights and the External Relations of the European Community: An Analysis of Doctrine and Practice, 9 Eur. J. Int'l L. 468, 468 (1998).Google Scholar

49 See Roos, Oscar I., Exploring the Linkage Between WTO Dispute Resolution and International Human Rights Law, 19 Currents: Int'l Trade L.J. 11, 11 (2011) (arguing that this linkage “is coming to the WTO, and that it is coming as a matter of law, rather than through a process of negotiation”).Google Scholar

50 See Prévost, Denise, Opening Pandora's Box: The Panel's Findings in the EC-Biotech Products Dispute, 34 Legal Issues of Econ. Integration 67, 67 (2007).Google Scholar

51 See Kelsen, Hans, The Law of the United Nations: A Critical Analysis of Its Fundamental Problems 23–50, 24 n.8 (1966) (writing at a time when state sovereignty reigned supreme and the full impact of the human rights movement was not yet apparent—in 1950). Kelsen stated that not only could the UN Charter, or even the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), not be interpreted as imposing any duty to respect the rights of their subjects, but the function of the UN regarding human rights is inconsistently set forth. Id. He extensively quotes the sub-committee that drafted article 1(3) which stated that “assuring or protecting such fundamental rights is the primary concern of each state.” Id. But see Thomas Buergenthal, International Human Rights: In a Nutshell 23 (1988) (explaining why the superpowers of the time were not interested in human rights, arguing that sponsors of the Charter might have had to come to terms with their own human rights abuses if they were to allow a human rights enforcing organization to emerge from the San Francisco Conference). Buergenthal cited the Gulag of the U.S.S.R., the racial discrimination against African-Americans in the U.S.A., and the vast colonial empire of the U.K. as evidence of the reluctance of the masters of the Conference to address human rights. Id. Google Scholar

52 See José E. Alvarez, The WTO as Linkage Machine, 96 Am. J. Int'l L. 146, 149 (2002).Google Scholar

53 World Trade Organization, Committee on Agriculture, Note on Non-Trade Concerns, 1, 9, G/AG/NG/W/36/Rev.1 (Nov. 9, 2000); see also Marceau, supra note 46, at 787–88.Google Scholar

54 Busse, , supra note 26, at 1922.Google Scholar

55 Charnovitz, Steve, Rethinking WTO Trade Sanctions, 95 Am. J. Int'l L. 792, 819–20 (2001), Zagel, supra note 10, at 30; Joseph, supra note 36, at 271; Tatjana Eres, The Limits of GATT Article XX: A Back Door for Human Rights?, 35 Geo. J. Int'l L. 597, 600 (2004); Virginia A. Leary, Workers’ Rights and International Trade: The Social Clause (GATT, ILO, NAFTA, U.S. Laws), in 2 Fair Trade and Harmonization: Prerequisites for Free Trade? 177 (Jagdish N. Bhagwati & Robert E. Hudec eds., 1997).Google Scholar

56 See Greenfield, Gerard, Core Labor Standards in the WTO: Reducing Labor to a Global Commodity, 5 WorkingUSA 9, 12 (2001).Google Scholar

57 Guzman, Andrew T., Trade, Labor, Legitimacy, 91 Calif. L. Rev. 885, 902 (2003).Google Scholar

58 See Zagel, , supra note 10, at 30; Jonathan H. Marks, 9/11 + 3/11 + 7/7 =? What Counts In Counterterrorism, 37 Colum. Hum. Rts. L. Rev. 101 passim (2006) (providing a general discussion of how to apply a Human rights impact assessment).Google Scholar

59 Id.; Zagel, supra note 10, at 6–9.Google Scholar

60 See Panizzon, , supra note Error! Bookmark not defined.; Sarah Joseph, Democratic Deficit, Participation and the WTO, Research Paper No. 2009/48 (2009), available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1899405 (suggesting “equalizing up”); Joseph, supra note 36, at 60–61; Daniel D. Bradlow, “The Times They Are A-Changin'”: Some Preliminary Thoughts on Developing Countries, NGOS and the Reform of the WTO, 33 Geo. Wash. Int'l L. Rev. 503, 503 (2000–2001); Daniel C. Esty, Linkages and Governance: NGOs at the World Trade Organization, 19 U. Pa. J. Int'l Econ. L. 709, 709 (1998); Steve Charnovitz, Participation of Nongovernmental Organizations in the World Trade Organization, 17 U. Pa. J. Int'l Econ. L. 331, 331 (1996); Christopher Butler, Comment, Human Rights and the World Trade Organization: The Right to Essential Medicines and the TRIPS Agreement, 5 J. Int'l L. & Pol'y 1, 1 (2007); Joost H.B. Pauwelyn, The Sutherland Report: A Missed Opportunity for Genuine Debate on Trade, Globalization, and Reforming the WTO, 8 J. Int'l & Econ. L. 329, 341343 (2005).Google Scholar

61 For information and analysis pertaining to the use of amicus briefs from NGOs and greater accommodation of public policy issues since the Doha initiative, see Charnovitz, supra note 60; Butler, supra note 60; Joseph, supra note 36, at 271; Abbott, supra note 15, at 283–84; Frederick M. Abbott, The Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health: Lighting a Dark Corner at the WTO, 5 J. Int'l Econ. L. 469, 469 (2002).Google Scholar

62 See supra notes 3–4 and accompanying text; Thomas Cottier, Joost Pauwelyn & Elisabeth Bürgi, Introduction: Linking Trade Regulation and Human Rights in International Law: An Overview, in Human Rights and International Trade 1, 78 (Thomas Cottier, Joost Pauwelyn & Elisabeth Bürgi eds., 2005); Andrew Lang, World Trade law After Neoliberalism: Reimagining the Global Economic Order (2011).Google Scholar

63 Robinson, Mary, The Fifth Annual Grotius Lecture Shaping Globalization: The Role of Human Rights, 19 Am. U. Int'l L. Rev. 1, 2 (2003).Google Scholar