Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-xbtfd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-08T17:33:12.921Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Flood basalt structures and textures as guides to cooling histories and palaeoclimates: the Deccan Traps of Saurashtra, western India

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 May 2022

Hetu Sheth Open the ORCID record for Hetu Sheth [Opens in a new window] ,
Raymond A. Duraiswami ,
Vivek Ghule ,
Anmol Naik Open the ORCID record for Anmol Naik [Opens in a new window]  and
Tarulata Das
Hetu Sheth*
Affiliation:
Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai400076India
Raymond A. Duraiswami
Affiliation:
Department of Geology, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Ganeshkhind, Pune411007India
Vivek Ghule
Affiliation:
Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai400076India
Anmol Naik
Affiliation:
Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai400076India
Tarulata Das
Affiliation:
Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai400076India
*
Author for correspondence: Hetu Sheth, Email: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The primary features (morphologies, structures, textures) of volcanic lava flows are determined by parameters such as composition, temperature, crystallinity, viscosity, flow velocity, strain rate and cooling rate. However, lava flows are open systems, and their primary features are strongly influenced by their emplacement environment. Among subaerial lava flows, those that solidify in a wet environment with rainfall develop very different internal structures (e.g. jointing patterns) and textures from those in a dry environment. Thus, the outcrop structures and textures of ancient lava flows, such as those forming continental flood basalt sequences thousands of metres thick, provide clues to their cooling histories and the palaeoclimates. Here we provide field, petrographic and geochemical data on large tholeiitic lava flows (sheet lobes) and associated dykes of the Saurashtra region in the northwestern Deccan Traps continental flood basalt province (India). The sheet lobes are dominantly pāhoehoe and rubbly pāhoehoe, and occasionally ‘a‘ā, with colonnade and entablature tiers. We show that the jointing patterns in the entablatures (irregular, chevron, rosette and skeleton jointing), and the textures of the sheet lobes and even some dykes (abundant glass, and quench crystals of plagioclase and Fe–Ti oxides) reflect convective heat removal, owing to widespread interaction with meteoric waters (rainfall) during solidification. The observations thus provide evidence for a wet climate in western India 65.5 million years ago.

Keywords

continental flood basaltDeccan Trapscolumnar jointingpalaeoclimatespalaeoenvironments
Type
Original Article
Information
Geological Magazine , Volume 159 , Issue 8 , August 2022 , pp. 1415 - 1436
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aubele, JC, Crumpler, LS and Elston, WE (1988) Vesicle zonation and vertical structure of basalt flows. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 35, 349–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barreto, CJS, de Lima, EF and Goldberg, K (2017) Primary vesicles, vesicle-rich segregation structures and recognition of primary and secondary porosities in lava flows from the Paraná igneous province, southern Brazil. Bulletin of Volcanology 79, 31. doi: 10.1007/s00445-017-1116-x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bondre, NR, Duraiswami, RA and Dole, G (2004) Morphology and emplacement of flows from the Deccan volcanic province, India. Bulletin of Volcanology 66, 29–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bondre, NR and Hart, WK (2008) Morphological and textural diversity of the Steens Basalt lava flows, southeastern Oregon, USA: implications for emplacement style and nature of eruptive episodes. Bulletin of Volcanology 70, 999–1019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borkar, VD (1973) Fossil fishes from the inter-trappean beds of Surendranagar District, Saurashtra. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences 78, 181–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, RJ, Blake, S, Bondre, NR, Phadnis, VM and Self, S (2011) ’A’ā lava flows in the Deccan volcanic province, India, and their significance for the nature of continental flood basalt eruptions. Bulletin of Volcanology 73, 737–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Budkewitsch, P and Robin, P-Y (1994) Modelling the evolution of columnar joints. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 59, 219–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chayes, F (1966) Alkaline and subalkaline basalts. American Journal of Science 264, 128–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corrigan, GM (1982) The crystal morphology of plagioclase feldspar produced during isothermal supercooling and constant rate cooling experiments. Mineralogical Magazine 46, 433–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cucciniello, C, Avanzinelli, R, Sheth, H and Casalini, M (2022) Mantle and crustal contributions to the Mount Girnar alkaline plutonic complex and the circum-Girnar mafic-silicic intrusions of Saurashtra, northwestern Deccan Traps. Journal of Petrology 63. doi: 10.1093/petrology/egac007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De, A (1996) Entablature structure in Deccan Trap flows: its nature and probable mode of origin. In Deccan Basalts (eds Deshmukh, SS and Nair, KKK), pp. 439–47. Nagpur: Gondwana Geological Society Special Volume no. 2. Google Scholar
DeGraff, JM and Aydin, A (1987) Surface morphology of columnar joints and its significance to mechanics and direction of joint growth. Geological Society of America Bulletin 99, 605–17.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeGraff, JM, Long, PE and Aydin, A (1989) Use of joint-growth directions and rock textures to infer thermal regimes during solidification of basaltic lava flows. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 38, 309–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deshmukh, SS (1988) Petrographic variations in compound flows of Deccan Traps and their significance. In Deccan Flood Basalts (ed. Subbarao, KV), pp. 305–19. Bengaluru: Geological Society of India Memoir no. 10.Google Scholar
Duraiswami, RA, Bondre, NR, Dole, G, Phadnis, VM and Kale, VS (2001) Tumuli and associated features from the western Deccan volcanic province, India. Bulletin of Volcanology 63, 435–42.Google Scholar
Duraiswami, RA, Bondre, NR and Managave, S (2008) Morphology of rubbly pāhoehoe (simple) flows from the Deccan volcanic province: implications for style of emplacement. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 177, 822–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duraiswami, RA, Dole, G and Bondre, N (2003) Slabby pāhoehoe from the western Deccan volcanic province: evidence for incipient pāhoehoe-‘a’ā transitions. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 121, 195–217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duraiswami, RA, Gadpallu, P, Shaikh, TN and Cardin, N (2014) Pāhoehoe-‘a’ā transitions in the lava flow fields of the western Deccan Traps, India – implications for emplacement dynamics, flood basalt architecture and volcanic stratigraphy. In Flood Basalts of Asia (eds Sheth, HC and Vanderkluysen, L), pp. 146–66. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 84.Google Scholar
Duraiswami, RA, Sheth, H, Gadpallu, P, Youbi, N and Chellai, H (2020) A simple recipe for red bole formation in continental flood basalt provinces: weathering of flow-top and flow-bottom breccias. Arabian Journal of Geosciences 13, 953. doi: 10.1007/s12517-020-05973-9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ernst, RE and Youbi, N (2017) How Large Igneous Provinces affect global climate, sometimes cause mass extinctions, and represent natural markers in the geological record. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 478, 30–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fedden, F (1884) The Geology of the Kathiawar Peninsula in Gujarat. Kolkata: Geological Survey of India Memoir no. 21, pp. 73–136.Google Scholar
Forbes, AES, Blake, S and Tuffen, H (2014) Entablature: fracture types and mechanisms. Bulletin of Volcanology 76, 820. doi: 10.1007/s00445-014-0820-z.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goehring, L and Morris, SW (2008) Scaling of columnar joints in basalt. Journal of Geophysical Research 113, B10203. doi: 10.1029/2007JB005018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goff, F (1996) Vesicle cylinders in vapour-differentiated basalt flows. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 71, 167–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greeley, R, Fagents, SA, Harris, RS, Kadel, SD and Williams, DA (1998) Erosion by flowing lava: field evidence. Journal of Geophysical Research 103, 27325–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grossenbacher, KA and McDuffie, SM (1995) Conductive cooling of lava: columnar joint diameter and stria width as functions of cooling rate and thermal gradient. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 69, 95–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guilbaud, M-N, Self, S, Thordarson, T and Blake, S (2005) Morphology, surface structures, and emplacement of lavas produced by Laki, A.D. 1783-84. In Kinematics and Dynamics of Lava Flows (eds Manga, M and Ventura, G), pp. 81–102. Geological Society of America Special Paper no. 396.Google Scholar
Harris, AJL, Rowland, SK, Villeneuve, N and Thordarson, T (2017) Pāhoehoe, ‘a‘ā, and block lava: an illustrated history of the nomenclature. Bulletin of Volcanology 79, 7. doi: 10.1007/s00445-016-1075-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
James, AVG (1920) Factors producing columnar structures in lavas and its occurrence near Melbourne, Australia. The Journal of Geology 28, 458–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jay, AE, Mac Niocaill, C, Widdowson, M, Self, S and Turner, W (2009) New palaeomagnetic data from the Mahabaleshwar Plateau, Deccan flood basalt province, India: implications for the volcanostratigraphic architecture of continental flood basalt provinces. Journal of the Geological Society, London 166, 13–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jay, AE, Marsh, JS, Fluteau, F and Courtillot, V (2018) Emplacement of inflated pahoehoe flows in the Naude’s Nek Pass, Lesotho remnant, Karoo continental flood basalt province: use of flow-lobe tumuli in understanding flood basalt emplacement. Bulletin of Volcanology 80, 17. doi: 10.1007/s00445-017-1189-6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jerram, DA (2002) Volcanology and facies architecture of flood basalts. In Volcanic Rifted Margins (eds Menzies, MA, Klemperer, SL, Ebinger, CJ and Baker, J), pp. 119–32. Geological Society of America Special Paper no. 362.Google Scholar
Justus, PS (1978) Origin of curvi-columnar joints in basalt cooling units by fracture-controlled quenching. Eos (Transactions of the AGU) 59, 379.Google Scholar
Kale, VS, Bodas, MS, Chatterjee, P and Pande, K (2020) Emplacement history and evolution of the Deccan volcanic province, India. Episodes 43, 278–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kale, VS, Dole, G, Patil Pillai, S, Chatterjee, P and Bodas, M (2022) Morphological types in the Deccan volcanic province, India: implications for emplacement dynamics of continental flood basalts. In Large Igneous Provinces and Their Plumbing Systems (eds Srivastava, RK, Ernst, RE, Buchan, KL and de Kock, M), pp. 341–96. Geological Society of London, Special Publication no. 518.Google Scholar
Kazanci, N (2012) Geological background and three vulnerable geosites of the Kizilçahamam-Çamlidere Geopark project in Ankara, Turkey. Geoheritage 4, 249–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keszthelyi, LP and Self, S (1998) Some physical requirements for the emplacement of long basaltic lava flows. Journal of Geophysical Research 103, 27447–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keszthelyi, L and Thordarson, Th (2000) Rubbly pāhoehoe: a previously undescribed but widespread lava type transitional between ‘a’ā and pāhoehoe. Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs 32, 7.Google Scholar
Kilburn, CRJ (2000) Lava flows and flow fields. In Encyclopedia of Volcanoes (eds Sigurdsson, H, Houghton, BF, McNutt, SR, Rymer, H and Stix, J), pp. 291–306. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Kilburn, CRJ (2004) Fracturing as a quantitative indicator of lava flow dynamics. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 139, 209–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krishnamurthy, P (2020) The Deccan volcanic province (DVP), India: a review. Journal of the Geological Society of India 96, 9–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lockwood, JP and Hazlett, RW (2010) Volcanoes: Global Perspectives. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 541 pp.Google Scholar
Lofgren, G (1974) An experimental study of plagioclase crystal morphology: isothermal crystallization. American Journal of Science 274, 243–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Long, PE and Wood, BJ (1986) Structures, textures, and cooling histories of Columbia River basalt flows. Geological Society of America Bulletin 97, 1144–5.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lyle, P (2000) The eruption environment of multi-tiered columnar basalt lava flows. Journal of the Geological Society, London 147, 714–22.Google Scholar
Macdonald, GA (1953) Pāhoehoe, ‘a‘ā, and block lava. American Journal of Science 251, 169–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marshall, PE, Widdowson, M and Murphy, DT (2016) The giant lavas of Kalkarindji: rubbly pāhoehoe lava in an ancient continental flood basalt province. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 441, 22–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Merh, SS (1995) Geology of Gujarat. Bengaluru: Geological Society of India, 222 pp.Google Scholar
Middlemost, EAK (1989) Iron oxidation ratios, norms and the classification of volcanic rocks. Chemical Geology 77, 19–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Misra, KS (1981) The tectonic setting of Deccan volcanics in southern Saurashtra and southern Gujarat. In Deccan Volcanism and Related Basalt Provinces in Other Parts of the World (eds Subbarao, KV and Sukheswala, RN), pp. 81–6. Bengaluru: Geological Society of India Memoir no. 3.Google Scholar
Misra, KS (1999) Deccan volcanics in Saurashtra and Kutch, Gujarat, India. In Deccan Volcanic Province (ed. Subbarao, KV), pp. 325–34. Bengaluru: Geological Society of India Memoir no. 43.Google Scholar
Misra, KS (2002) Arterial system of lava tubes and channels in Deccan volcanics of western India. Journal of the Geological Society of India 59, 114–24.Google Scholar
Monteiro, A, Duraiswami, RA, Mittal, T, Pujari, S, Low, U and Absar, A (2021) Cooling history and emplacement dynamics within rubbly lava flows, southern Deccan Traps: insights from textural variations and crystal size distributions. Bulletin of Volcanology 83, 67. doi: 10.1007/s00445-021-01485-w.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neill, I, Meliksetian, K, Allen, MB, Navasardyan, G and Kuiper, K (2015) Petrogenesis of mafic collision zone magmatism: the Armenian sector of the Turkish-Iranian plateau. Chemical Geology 403, 24–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nichols, RL (1936) Flow-units in basalt. The Journal of Geology 44, 617–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Passey, SR and Bell, BR (2007) Morphologies and emplacement mechanisms of the lava flows of the Faroe Islands Basalt Group, Faroe Islands, NE Atlantic Ocean. Bulletin of Volcanology 70, 139–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peterson, DW and Tilling, RI (1980) Transition of basaltic lava from pahoehoe to aa, Kilauea volcano, Hawaii: field observations and key factors. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 7, 271–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Philpotts, AR and Dickson, LA (2002) Millimeter-scale modal layering and the nature of the upper solidification zone in thick flood-basalt flows and other sheets of magma. Journal of Structural Geology 24, 1171–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Philpotts, AR and Lewis, CL (1987) Pipe vesicles – an alternate model for their origin. Geology 14, 971–4.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pinkerton, H and Wilson, L (1994) Factors controlling the lengths of channel-fed lava flows. Bulletin of Volcanology 56, 108–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Puffer, JH and Student, JJ (1992) Volcanic structures, eruptive style, and posteruptive deformation and chemical alteration of the Watchung flood basalts, New Jersey. In Eastern North American Mesozoic Magmatism (eds Puffer, JH and Ragland, PC), pp. 261–78. Geological Society of America Special Paper no. 268.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ramasamy, SM (1995) Deformation tectonics of Deccan volcanics of southern Saurashtra, India and its relation to western extension of Narmada lineament. In Magmatism in Diverse Tectonic Settings (eds Srivastava, RK and Chandra, U), pp. 195–208. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishers.Google Scholar
Reidel, SP, Camp, VE, Tolan, TL and Martin, BS (2013) The Columbia River flood basalt province: stratigraphy, areal extent, volume, and physical volcanology. In The Columbia River Flood Basalt Province (eds Reidel, SP, Camp, VE, Ross, ME, Wolff, JA, Martin, BS, Tolan, TL and Wells, RE), pp. 1–43. Geological Society of America Special Paper no. 497.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reidel, SP, Tolan, T and Camp, V (2018) Columbia River flood basalt flow emplacement rates – fast, slow, or variable? In Field Volcanology: A Tribute to the Distinguished Career of Don Swanson (eds Poland, M, Garcia, M, Camp, V and Grunder, A), pp. 1–19. Geological Society of America Special Paper no. 538.Google Scholar
Rowland, SK and Walker, GPL (1990) Pahoehoe and aa in Hawaii: volumetric flow rate controls the lava structure. Bulletin of Volcanology 52, 614–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ryan, MP and Sammis, CG (1978) Cyclic fracture mechanisms in cooling basalt. Geological Society of America Bulletin 89, 1295–308.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saemundsson, K (1970) Interglacial lava flows in the lowlands of southern Iceland and the problem of two-tiered columnar jointing. Jökull 20, 62–77.Google Scholar
Samant, B, Mohabey, DM, Srivastava, P and Thakre, D (2014) Palynology and clay mineralogy of the Deccan volcanic associated sediments of Saurashtra, Gujarat: age and palaeoenvironments. Journal of Earth System Science 123, 219–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scheidegger, AE (1978) The tectonic significance of joints in the Canary Islands. Rock Mechanics 11, 69–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schöbel, S, de Wall, H, Ganerød, M, Pandit, MK and Rolf, C (2014) Magnetostratigraphy and 40Ar-39Ar geochronology of the Malwa Plateau region (northern Deccan Traps), central western India: significance and correlation with the main Deccan large igneous province sequences. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 89, 28–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Self, S, Mittal, T and Jay, AE (2021) Thickness characteristics of pahoehoe lavas in the Deccan province, Western Ghats, India, and in continental flood basalt provinces elsewhere. Frontiers in Earth Science 8, 630604. doi: 10.3389/feart.2020.630604.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Self, S, Schmidt, A and Mather, TA (2014) Emplacement characteristics, time scales, and volcanic gas release rates of continental flood basalt eruptions on Earth. In Volcanism, Impacts, and Mass Extinctions: Causes and Effects (eds Keller, G and Kerr, AC), pp. 319–37. Geological Society of America Special Paper no. 505.Google Scholar
Self, S, Thordarson, T and Keszthelyi, L (1997) Emplacement of continental flood basalt lava flows. In Large Igneous Provinces: Continental, Oceanic, and Planetary Flood Volcanism (eds Mahoney, JJ and Coffin, MF), pp. 381–410. American Geophysical Union, Geophysical Monograph vol. 100. Washington, DC, USA.Google Scholar
Sen, B (2017) Lava flow transition in pāhoehoe-dominated lower pile of Deccan Traps from Manmad-Chandwad area, western Maharashtra. Journal of the Geological Society of India 89, 281–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sen, B and Sabale, AB (2011) Flow-types and lava emplacement history of Rajahmundry Traps, west of River Godavari, Andhra Pradesh. Journal of the Geological Society of India 78, 457–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sengupta, P and Ray, A (2006) Primary volcanic structures from a type section of Deccan Trap flows around Narsingpur-Harrai-Amarwara, central India: implications for cooling history. Journal of Earth System Science 115, 631–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shekhawat, LS and Sharma, VP (1996) Deccan basalts of Wankaner-Rajkot area, Gujarat. In Deccan Basalts (eds Deshmukh, SS and Nair, KKK), pp. 89–100. Nagpur: Gondwana Geological Society Special Volume no. 2. Google Scholar
Sheth, H (2018) A Photographic Atlas of Flood Basalt Volcanism. New York: Springer International Publishing, 363 + xvi pp.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sheth, H (2020) “Pipe vesicles” in basalt: trails left by dense immiscible melt droplets sinking in a viscous basal thermal boundary layer. Earth-Science Reviews 201, 103031. doi: 10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.103031.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sheth, H, Pal, I, Patel, V, Samant, H and D’Souza, J (2017a) Breccia-cored columnar rosettes in a rubbly pāhoehoe lava flow, Elephanta Island, Deccan Traps, and a model for their origin. Geoscience Frontiers 8, 1299–307.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sheth, H, Samant, H, Patel, V and D’Souza, J (2017b) The volcanic geoheritage of the Elephanta Caves, Deccan Traps, western India. Geoheritage 9, 359–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sheth, HC, Zellmer, GF, Kshirsagar, PV and Cucciniello, C (2013) Geochemistry of the Palitana flood basalt sequence and the eastern Saurashtra dykes, Deccan Traps: clues to petrogenesis, dyke-flow relationships, and regional lava stratigraphy. Bulletin of Volcanology 75, 701. doi: 10.1007/s00445-013-0701-x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spry, A (1962) The origin of columnar jointing, particularly in basalt flows. Journal of the Australian Geological Society 8, 191–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swanson, DA and Wright, RL (1981) The regional approach to studying the Columbia River Basalt Group. In Deccan Volcanism and Related Basalt Provinces in Other Parts of the World (eds Subbarao, KV and Sukheswala, RN), pp. 58–80. Bengaluru: Geological Society of India Memoir no. 3.Google Scholar
Thordarson, T and Self, S (1998) The Roza Member, Columbia River Basalt Group: a gigantic pāhoehoe lava flow field formed by endogenous processes? Journal of Geophysical Research 103, 27411–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tomkeieff, SI (1940) The basalt lavas of the Giant’s Causeway district of Northern Ireland. Bulletin of Volcanology 6, 89–146.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verma, SP, Torres-Alvarado, IS and Sotelo-Rodriguez, ZT (2002) SINCLAS: standard igneous norm and volcanic rock classification system. Computers and Geosciences 28, 711–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vernon, RH (2018) A Practical Guide to Rock Microstructure. 2nd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 431 pp.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vye-Brown, C, Self, S and Barry, TL (2013) Architecture and emplacement of flood basalt flow fields: case studies from the Columbia River Basalt Group, NW USA. Bulletin of Volcanology 75, 697. doi: 10.1007/s00445-013-0697-2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walker, GPL (1971) Compound and simple lava flows and flood basalts. Bulletin Volcanologique 35, 579–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walker, GPL (1987) Pipe vesicles in Hawaiian basaltic lavas: their origin and potential as palaeoslope indicators. Geology 14, 84–7.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waters, AC (1960) Determining directions of flow in basalts. American Journal of Science 258A, 350–66.Google Scholar
Wignall, PB (2001) Large igneous provinces and mass extinctions. Earth-Science Reviews 53, 1–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williamson, IT and Bell, BR (1994) The Palaeocene lava field of west-central Skye, Scotland: stratigraphy, palaeogeography and structure. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh: Earth Sciences 85, 39–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, SA (2000) Data Compilation for USGS Reference Materials Basalt BHVO2, Hawaiian Basalt. United States Geological Survey Open File Report.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Sheth et al. supplementary material

Table S2

Download Sheth et al. supplementary material(File)
File 54.3 KB
Supplementary material: File

Sheth et al. supplementary material

Table S1

Download Sheth et al. supplementary material(File)
File 124.4 KB