Introduction and history of cashew cultivation. The location of Côte d’Ivoire promotes the cultivation of cashew (Anacardium occidentale) in the northern half of the country. Indeed, introduced in 1960 to fight against erosion and halt the advancing desert, this crop has become a perennial source of income for more than 150,000 farmers gathered in twenty cooperatives and allows more than 1.5 M people to earn a living. The Ivorian cashew production increased from 6,000 t·year-1 in 1990 to 330,000 t·year-1 in 2008, with a forecast of 350,000 t·year-1 in 2009. Organization of the cashew sector. However, the sector is facing enormous problems including the disorganization of operators and the non-processing of cashews. The disorganization of the sector’s operators does not promote collaborative resolution of issues of common interest. This results in all sorts of speculation by intermediaries. The existing structures do not work synergistically, so that the price of cashew per kg paid to producers varies in the same country, from one region to the other, and even according to the buyers. Strategic and institutional environment. The problems of processing cashew nuts are due on the one hand to the investment code that does not favor the installation of medium-sized processing units (2,500 t·year-1) and, on the other hand, to private banks which require too many guarantees to fund investors. Conclusion. The cashew industry has a future in Côte d’Ivoire provided that the operators are organized, and that the Ivorian state establishes a regulatory and institutional framework to facilitate the installation of investors.

Introduction. The use of mycorrhizal fungi as biofertilizers can reduce chemical inputs during the nursery phase, allowing the production of high quality plant material with reduced fertilizer inputs. The lack of complete knowledge of each crop’s responsiveness to mycorrhizal symbiosis, however, is still a handicap to the routine application of this biotechnology for commercial purposes. In our work, the influence of early mycorrhization as an alternative to standard P fertilization programs for two tropical crops, papaya and pineapple, was assessed in a greenhouse experiment. Materials and methods. Papaya seedlings and pineapple planting material were inoculated with the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (AMF) Glomus mosseae and cultured on substrates with increasing amounts of soluble P. Data concerning plant development and nutritional status were determined 5 months (papaya) and 7 months (pineapple) after inoculation. Results. For both crops, benefits derived from mycorrhization, expressed in terms of plant development and nutritional status, were significantly higher than those derived from P application. Overall, mycorrhizal papaya plants exhibited significantly higher biomass and macroelement contents in shoots than plants without mycorrhizas at any P level. Mycorrhizal effects on pineapple at the lowest P level were significant in terms of plant development and P shoot contents. Conclusions. Differential benefits derived from mycorrhization seem to be correlated to each crop’s internal P requirements. Our work highlights the potential benefits of integrating early mycorrhization at the nursery stage in order to reduce P fertilizer inputs in sustainable plant production systems.

Introduction. There has been increasing interest in the domestication potential of indigenous fruit trees. Nevertheless, our understanding of how these species’ abundance and yield of fruit is altered by ecological conditions, which is critical to foresee realistic sustainable management plans, is limited. Materials and methods. We used local ecological knowledge, presence / absence data and quantitative methods to examine the effect of ecological conditions on the distribution, abundance and yields of tamarind trees (T. indica) across three ecological regions in Benin, West Africa. Results and discussion. Rural communities’ knowledge on the species’ ecological range was congruent with scientific findings. The natural distribution of tamarind individuals was limited to the Sudanian and the Sudano-Guinean regions and their density declined with increasing moisture, being highest (2 trees·km-2) in the Sudanian region and lowest in the Guineo-Congolian region (scarce). On the other hand, fruit and pulp mass and number of seeds per fruit varied significantly, being higher in the Guineo-Congolian wetter region. However, no significant variation occurred among ecological regions for estimated overall fruit yields per tree. This might indicate that tamarind trees tend to invest in a small number of very large fruits under wetter conditions and a very large number of small fruits under dryer conditions. Conclusion. The results showed that semi-arid lands would best suit T. indica domestication. Nevertheless, its productivity could be higher under wetter conditions. Because of its affinity for gallery forests, we recommend thorough studies on its capacity to survive the increasing drought in its current ecological range.

Introduction. Damage caused by tephritid fruit flies has been identified as a major limiting factor to citrus production in Nigeria. Presently, no control measure is applied by the majority of the farmers. This study therefore seeks to evaluate the efficacy of locally-made protein bait sprays and the differences in the susceptibility of sweet orange varieties in reducing fruit fly damage. Materials and methods. In 2006 and 2007, one, two and three spot applications of locally-made protein bait mixed with chlorpyrifos insecticide were administered to Agege, Parson Brown and Valencia Late sweet oranges. Treatments were arranged in a randomized complete block design. Efficacy of the bait sprays in reducing fruit attack was assessed by randomly sampling 10 ripe or ripening fruits per stand as well as dropped fruits. Results and discussion. The bait sprays significantly (p < 0.05) reduced damage of sweet orange by lowering the infestation level of Bactrocera invadens Drew Tsurata & White, and consequently reducing the number of dropped fruits. Application of three spots of bait was most effective in reducing damage due to B. invadens on sweet orange varieties. The infestation level of B. invadens and the number of dropped fruits of the variety Agege were significantly (p < 0.05) higher than those of the varieties Parson Brown and Valencia Late. Conclusion. Our study shows that three spot applications were most efficacious in reducing fruit damage, and that the Valencia Late variety was the least damaged, followed by Parson Brown.

Introduction. Farm typologies and cropping practice typologies generally aim at seeking determinants of existing crop management strategies. They constitute the first step for setting improvement goals for cropping systems. Though there are a host of farm typology methods, few deal specifically with farmers’ practices, and even fewer investigate the correlations between practices. We propose here a framework for analysing the determinants of crop management, based on a vision of a crop management sequence condensed into logical combinations of cropping techniques. Materials and methods. This analytical framework was applied to the case of Guadeloupian citrus production, using a representative sample of 41 producers. Three stages were necessary to implement our analytical framework. At stage 1, logical and ordered combinations of cropping practices (CCPs), constitutive of observed as well as reference crop managements (RCMs), were identified through expert analysis. Based on measurements of deviations between farmers’ CCPs and RCMs’ CCPs, a typology of cropping practices was next built. At stage 2, the performances of farmers’ crop managements were evaluated using relevant indicators. Finally, at stage 3, constraints – either related to the environment or to the whole farm management – that determined producers’ cropping practices were identified for making, with the stakeholders, proposals for further technical improvements. Results. Crop management sequences were condensed into five CCPs. A technical profile was then determined for every producer, before a multiple correspondence factorial analysis was run. It identified two groups of producers with contrasting technical profiles. The collective analysis of these results pointed out “weed management” as a major constraint on the cropping systems, revealing that the RCM was inadequate in a context of impossible mechanisation. Discussion. Restructuring complex sequences of cropping techniques into five logical combinations of techniques enabled the comparison with a reference crop management. The cropping systems’ constraints and the objectives for further improvements were then set up collectively by the farmers and social stakeholders, along with the researchers. This analysis constitutes the first stage of a process of redesigning cropping systems, and its result provides a sound basis for a participatory approach

Introduction. Au Maroc, les agrumes sont confrontés à une combinaison de stress biotiques [virus de la tristeza (CTV) / Phytophthora] et abiotiques (salinité, alcalinité et sécheresse). La plupart de ces contraintes doivent être gérées individuellement par le choix d’un porte-greffe adapté. Cependant, la propagation de la CTV dans le bassin méditerranéen va bientôt interdire l’utilisation du bigaradier, porte-greffe traditionnel, qui offre actuellement une tolérance suffisante à la salinité et l’alcalinité. Par conséquent, la sélection de nouveaux porte-greffes d’agrumes devient pressante. Notre étude a cherché à étudier l’effet de différents régimes hydriques sur la croissance de dix porte-greffes d’agrumes : citrange Carrizo (France), citrange Carrizo (Maroc), citrange Troyer, citrange Yuma, Citrus volkameriana; deux Poncirus trifoliata d’origine différente, citrumelo, Mand. Sunki  ×  Poncirus trifoliata, et Poorman. Matériel et méthodes. Pour chaque porte-greffe, des plants âgés de trois mois ont été cultivés en pots de plastique (0,5 L) dans une serre à El Menzeh, INRA, Maroc; ils ont été soumis à trois régimes hydriques [(100 %, 75 % et 50 %) d’humidité à la capacité au champ (Hcc) du substrat]. L’expérimentation a été disposée en un split-plot à trois traitements. Les paramètres morphologiques mesurés ont été la hauteur de la plante et l’accumulation de matière sèche et fraîche. Les paramètres physiologiques étudiés ont été la teneur relative en eau, le taux de transpiration et les teneurs en chlorophylle, sucres solubles et proline. Résultats. Les paramètres morphologiques et physiologiques ont été affectés par l’intensité du stress hydrique appliqué. Cependant, les porte-greffes se sont comportés différemment vis-à-vis de cette contrainte. Le stress hydrique a induit une augmentation de la teneur en proline et en sucres solubles au niveau des feuilles des porte-greffes. Conclusion. Le stress hydrique affecte d’une manière significative les caractéristiques physiologiques et morphologiques des porte-greffes d’agrumes et, en conditions de déficit hydrique extrême (50 % Hcc), un comportement différentiel des porte-greffes a été constaté. Sur la base des résultats que nous avons obtenus, ce sont les porte-greffes citrange Carrizo (Maroc) et Poorman qui présenteraient globalement les meilleures aptitudes à résister aux conditions de stress hydrique.

Introduction. Consumption of Physalis fruits is quite recent and the products are poorly known among consumers. This plant has been known for a long time as an ornamental in Europe, for at least 200 years. Traceability is increasingly becoming important across the agri-food industry; however, at the present time, the traceability of this fruit is only documentary. In case of doubt or fraud, no standardized analysis can determine the geographical origin of the fruits. Materials and methods. In order to discover the relationship between the fungal communities of the fruit and their geographical origins, 28S rDNA-PCR-DGGE was used to analyze the variation in fungal communities in three species of Physalis fruit (Physalis ixocarpa Brot., Physalis pruinosa L. and Physalis peruviana L.) from Egypt, Uganda and Colombia. Results. Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis (DGGE) fingerprints of 28S ribosomal DNA (28S rDNA) analyzed by multivariate analysis could distinguish different fruit origins by their fungal communities. Conclusion. We propose the PCR-DGGE method as a new traceability tool which provides fruit in general, and Physalis in particular, with a unique barcode for each country by using 28S rDNA fingerprinting of fungi.

Introduction Le baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) est un arbre caractéristique du paysage agricole dans les zones semi-arides d’Afrique. Il est utilisé quotidiennement par la population locale africaine. La diversité des services et des produits du baobab suggère d’effectuer une évaluation de sa variabilité morphologique afin d’avoir une meilleure connaissance de son potentiel. Notre article a cherché à identifier des descripteurs morphologiques discriminants chez le baobab en relation avec la diversité agro-écologique du Mali. Matériel et méthodes Notre évaluation a concerné huit provenances de baobab reparties sur l’ensemble de son aire de distribution géographique au Mali. Elle a porté sur les caractères foliaires, fruitiers et sur ceux liés aux graines. Le coefficient de variation a été utilisé pour évaluer la variabilité. Les données ont été analysées par analyse de variance et analyse multi-variée. Résultats Une importante variabilité a été observée selon les provenances et les descripteurs utilisés. Les descripteurs morphologiques discriminants pour les baobabs que nous avons échantillonnés ont été la longueur et la largeur des fruits, la longueur du pédoncule des fruits, la longueur, la largeur et le nombre de lobes des feuilles.

Introduction. While researchers have paid considerable attention to the effect of soil salinity on crop yield, methodological impediments remain when salinity is combined with other growth factors, especially in farmers’ fields. A specific methodology was adapted to assess the effect of waterlogging and salinity on date palm yield (Phoenix dactylifera L. cv. Deglet Noor). Materials and methods. Date palm yield, water table depth, irrigation water, groundwater and soil salinity were measured in 167 field plots located in five irrigation sectors of the Wargla basin (Algeria). Variance analysis and a boundary line approach were combined to analyze actual and potential yields according to environmental stresses. Results and discussion. High soil salinity resulted from saline irrigation water and a shallow water table. Actual yield decreased with the increase in soil salinity, the decrease in water table depth, and the presence of a gypsum-cemented horizon within the soil profile. The significant effect of the interaction between water table depth and soil salinity showed that the crop responded to the most severe stress rather than to combinations of the individual effects. Potential yield was assessed according to classes of water table depth, soil salinity and the occurrence of a gypsum-cemented horizon. The relationship between soil salinity and potential yield was calibrated according to two models. The limiting factors in order of decreasing importance were shallow water table, high soil salinity and occurrence of a gypsum-cemented horizon for 38.3%, 16.8% and 2.4% of the field plots, respectively; there was no limiting factor for 42.5% of the field plots. In certain sectors, actual yields remained far below potential yields and the additional effect of irrigation water salinity could thus be considered.

Introduction. Various whitefly species attack sweet oranges in Nigeria. The economic importance of these whiteflies varies from one area to another depending on prevailing environmental conditions. Trials were established to assess the relative susceptibility of sweet orange varieties to woolly whitefly Aleurothrixus floccosus (Maskell) attack, its population dynamics and the impact of its entomopathogenic fungi Aschersonia spp.in population management. Materials and methods. Four sweet orange varieties were used for the trials: Agege, Bende, Pineapple and Valencia. The population dynamics of A. floccosus and its fungi-colonised nymphs were monitored in 2006 and 2007 by sampling 24 leaves per tree at 14-day intervals. Average monthly precipitation, relative humidity and temperature were collated for the period of our study. Results and discussion. No significant difference was observed among the populations of A. floccosus nymphs or the level of nymphal infection by Aschersonia spp. in the sweet orange varieties. Higher numbers of woolly whitefly eggs and adults were observed on the Agege and Bende varieties in 2006 and 2007, but the results were only significantly different in 2007. In both years, the populations of eggs, nymphs and adults of A. floccosus and its entomopathogenic fungi Aschersonia spp. were relatively high in the dry season months of January to March, dropped during the rainy seasons and rose again from October. Evaluation of Aschersonia spp impact showed active colonisation of whiteflies. Generally, our results showed that weather factors such as rainfall and relative humidity negatively influenced the woolly whitefly population. Conclusion. The association between the woolly whitefly population and fungi was beneficial and suggests that Aschersonia spp. could be considered as a potential biological control agent for A. floccosus

Introduction. Citrus aurantium L. sour oranges are poorly exploited in Tunisia, although the Tunisian Cap Bon is one of the major areas of production of sour orange trees. Our study aimed at determining the effect of the geographic origin of the raw material on quality of orange marmalades and consumer acceptance. Materials and methods. Fresh sour oranges were collected from five areas in the Cap Bon region in the North-East of Tunisia for producing marmalades. Physicochemical characterisation of marmalades from the five different origins included the determination of soluble solids, total and volatile acidity, the measurement of reducing sugars, and measurement of colour. Sensory panels from Tunisia, Algeria and Europe revealed the marmalades’ sensory profiles. The sensory panels then attributed preference and acceptance ranks for the five marmalades. Results and discussion. The analyses highlighted an effect of the geographic origin of the raw material on the physicochemical quality. The most suitable geographic conditions seem to be climatic and edaphic criteria. Assessors from various nationalities revealed different sensory profiles depending on the consumer’s nationality and fruit production region. In addition, Tunisian consumers are less likely to be marmalade buyers than European and Algerian consumers.

Introduction. The avocado (Persea americana Mill.) fruit is sensitive to chilling injury (CI) when exposed to low temperatures. High lipid content in avocado pulp makes it prone to oxidation, resulting in rancidity and subsequent production of undesirable flavours and quality loss during storage. Materials and methods. Avocado fruit (cv. Becon) were treated with 1 μL.L-1 1-MCP for 24 h at 20 °C, and thereafter stored at 4 °C for 21 d under low oxygen atmosphere (3.5% O2), followed by transferring to 20 °C for 14 d to simulate the shelf life. The CI index, firmness, peel colour, relative electrical conductivity (EC), respiration, ethylene evolution, malondialdehyde (MDA) content, peroxidase (POD) activity, peroxide value and iodine value were measured throughout the storage period. Results and discussion. The CI incidence and severity of fruit treated with a combination of 1-MCP and low oxygen were significantly lower and delayed compared with the other treatments. The combined application of 1-MCP and low oxygen treatment was effective and delayed the onset of climacteric peaks of respiration and ethylene production. The delay was associated with reductions in fruit softening and cell membrane permeability as expressed by EC. The results of MDA content and POD activity of fruit treated with a combination of 1-MCP and low oxygen were significantly reduced. Moreover, significantly lower peroxide values and higher iodine values suggested that a combination of 1-MCP and low oxygen treatment effectively controlled the lipid oxidation in avocado fruit pulp. Conclusion. Overall, the results support the hypothesis that combined treatment (as compared with either 1-MCP or low oxygen treatment) was the most effective for alleviation of CI, lipid oxidation stability and extending the shelf life of avocado fruit under low temperature storage

Introduction Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is a crop of major economic importance in the provinces of Malaga and Granada (SE Spain). A field experiment on mango trees was designed to determine the optimum irrigation scheduling over three seasons. The aim was to evaluate the impact of sustained-deficit irrigation (SDI) strategies on fruit yield and quality, tree growth, and mineral status under a Mediterranean subtropical climate. Materials and methods. Three sustained-deficit irrigation treatments were applied to mango trees: SDI-1 (33% ETc), SDI-2 (50% ETc) and SDI-3 (75% ETc). The stress treatments were compared with a control (C-100) irrigated at 100% ETC. The response of fruit yield, number of fruits, fruit size and quality, and macro- and micronutrients in leaves was determined. Results. The SDI-2 treatment proved to be the most appropriate SDI treatment, since it allowed the trees to reach the highest yield (18.4 t·ha-1) and the best water-use efficiency (7.14 kg·m-3). However, fruit size was higher for trees of the SDI-3 and C-100 treatments, since they reached significantly higher length and width. The total soluble solids were affected by the SDI treatments only for one year, being highest in fruits from trees of the SDI-1 and SDI-2 treatments. Macro- and micronutrients in the leaves were affected by the SDI treatment only for the P, Mg and Mn contents. Conclusion The SDI treatment providing 50% of ETC is recommended for mango orchards in order to attain the highest yields and the best water-use efficiency under a Mediterranean subtropical climate.

Introduction. Knowledge of tephritid diversity in Senegal was poor before 2004, so PIP-COLEACP and CIRAD, in collaboration with Cérès-DPV, carried out, in 2004, trapping for preliminary detection of fruit flies in six orchards in the Niayes zone. Materials and methods. We selected three mixed mango orchards and three homogeneous mango orchards in this zone. In each orchard, we used three attractants: Terpinyl acetate (Ter), Trimedlure (Tri) and Torula (Tor). Traps were serviced weekly. Results. We captured 77 642 fruit flies in more than 4 months including mango season; they were represented by 18 identified fly species, including ten Ceratitis, six Dacus and two Bactrocera species. Two very serious pests were identified with the confirmation of Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillett) for cucurbit crops and the detection of B. invadens Drew Tsuruta & White for fruit crops. The two most abundant species of Ceratitis were C. cosyra and C. silvestrii. Discussion. We captured more fruit fly species in mixed mango orchards than in homogeneous mango orchards. Bactrocera invadens was also more abundant in mixed orchards, probably because of its polyphagous status. This new invasive species, B. invadens, can have many hosts in mixed mango orchards, enhancing its breeding potential. Conclusion. Effective management to deal with this alien species requires: (i) improvement of basic and applied research; (ii) an effective IPM package; (iii) an area-wide management approach; (iv) a sub-regional effort on the part of researchers, extension services, growers, exporters, farming associations and the different actors in fruit value chains (mainly mango).