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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 01 January 2025
Justiciability, or non-justiciability, has been regarded as a difficult and indeterminate concept in Australia. This article provides a definition of justiciability in order to clarify the interaction of justiciability with the grant of federal jurisdiction in Chapter III of the Constitution, as well as with related doctrines, such as the act of state doctrine and the American political question doctrine. It argues that justiciability is a constitutional limitation on federal jurisdiction to matters that are capable of being resolved by the exercise of federal judicial power. Accordingly, broad statements that certain subject matters are always non-justiciable should be rejected. Instead, it is necessary to demonstrate exactly what grounds a matter is said to be non-justiciable, arising from the text and structure of the Constitution.
1. Anthony Mason, ‘The High Court as Gatekeeper’ (2000) 24(3) Melbourne University Law Review 784, 787. See also Thomas v Mowbray (2007) 233 CLR 307, 354 [105] (Gummow and Crennan JJ) (‘Thomas’).
2. Geoffrey Lindell, ‘Justiciability’ in Michael Coper, Tony Blackshield and George Williams (eds), Oxford Companion to the High Court of Australia (OUP, 2001) 391, 392.
3. James Stellios, The Federal Judicature (LexisNexis, 2nd ed, 2020) discusses justiciability as an element of the ‘matter’ requirement: 116–17 and 158. Mark Leeming, Authority to Decide (Federation Press, 2nd ed, 2020) expressly excludes justiciability: 14.
4. For example, Will Bateman, Dan Meagher, Amelia Simpson and James Stellios, Hanks Australian Constitutional Law (LexisNexis, 11th ed, 2021) [2.9.22], [2.10.23], [2.10.27] (internal Parliamentary proceedings), [7.3.17] (Cabinet decisions). Limited discussion is in George Williams, Sean Brennan and Andrew Lynch, Blackshield and Williams Australian Constitutional Law and Theory (Federation Press, 7th ed, 2018) at [13.93]–[13.105].
5. (1996) 189 CLR 51.
6. Lacey v Attorney-General of Queensland (2011) 242 CLR 573, 593–594 [48] (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ); Leeming (n 3) 14.
7. Huddart, Parker & Co Pty Ltd v Moorehead (1909) 8 CLR 330, 357 (Griffith CJ) (‘Huddart Parker’).
8. Ah Yick v Lehmert (1905) 2 CLR 593, 603 (Griffith CJ) (emphasis added); Baxter v Commissioners of Taxation (NSW) (1907) 4 CLR 1087, 1142 (Isaacs J), applied in Rizeq v Western Australia (2017) 262 CLR 1, 12 [8] (Kiefel CJ) and Burns v Corbett (2018) 265 CLR 304, 330–331 [21]–[26] (Kiefel CJ, Bell and Keane JJ). See also Burns v Corbett at 346–7 [70]–[71] (Gageler J), 365 [124] (Nettle J), 378 [159]–[160] (Gordon J).
9. CGU Insurance Ltd v Blakeley (2016) 259 CLR 339, 350–353 [25]–[31] (French CJ, Kiefel, Bell and Keane JJ) (‘CGU Insurance’).
10. (1921) 29 CLR 257, 265 (Knox CJ, Gavan Duffy, Powers, Rich and Starke JJ).
11. Ibid 264–5.
12. R v Kirby; Ex parte Boilermakers’ Society of Australia (1956) 94 CLR 254, 272–3 (‘Boilermakers’).
13. Ibid.
14. Ibid 274–5.
15. Australian Commonwealth Shipping Board v Federated Seamen’s Union of Australasia (1925) 36 CLR 442, 451 (Isaacs J).
16. North Ganalanja Aboriginal Corporation v Queensland (1996) 185 CLR 595, 612 (Brennan CJ, Dawson, Toohey, Gaudron and Gummow JJ); Ainsworth v Criminal Justice Commission (1992) 175 CLR 564, 582 (Mason CJ, Dawson, Toohey and Gaudron JJ).
17. CGU Insurance (n 9) 351 [27] (French CJ, Kiefel, Bell and Keane JJ), quoting Henry Burmester, ‘Limitations on Federal Adjudication’ in Brian Opeskin and Fiona Wheeler (eds), The Australian Federal Judicial System (Melbourne University Press, 2000) 227, 232, and applied in Hobart International Airport Pty Ltd v Clarence City Council [2022] HCA 5, [26] (Kiefel CJ, Keane and Gordon JJ) (‘Hobart International Airport’).
18. Thorpe v Commonwealth (No 3) (1997) 71 ALJR 767, 779, where Kirby J thought that regardless of the order of the issues, ‘the court’s duty is plain. It should stop the proceedings forthwith’.
19. Official Record of the Debates of the Australasian Federal Convention Melbourne, 31 January 1898, 319.
20. Hobart International Airport (n 17) [46] (Gageler and Gleeson JJ).
21. Official Record of the Debates of the Australasian Federal Convention Melbourne, 31 January 1898, 319.
22. Ibid 320.
23. (1911) 12 CLR 667, 708 (O’Connor J) (‘State Boundaries Case’).
24. Ibid.
25. Mason (n 1) 788, 792.
26. Hobart International Airport (n 17).
27. Ibid [31] (Kiefel CJ, Keane and Gordon JJ), [49] (Gageler and Gleeson JJ), citing Pape v Federal Commissioner of Taxation (2009) 238 CLR 1, 68 [152].
28. Ibid [31].
29. Ibid [47].
30. Ibid [48], citing Abebe v Commonwealth (1999) 197 CLR 510, 527 [31].
31. Ibid [49].
32. AZC20 v Minister for Immigration, Citizenship, Migrant Services and Multicultural Affairs [2023] HCA 26, [75]-[76] (Edelman J) (‘AZC20’).
33. [2023] HCA 4, [13] (Kiefel CJ, Gageler, Gordon, Gleeson and Jagot JJ) (‘Unions NSW’).
34. Ibid [14].
35. Ibid [28].
36. Ibid [18].
37. Ibid [25]–[26].
38. Croome v Tasmania (1997) 191 CLR 119, 126 (Brennan CJ, Dawson and Toohey JJ) 133, 136 (Gaudron, McHugh and Gummow JJ).
39. Unions NSW (n 33) [27].
40. Wragg v New South Wales (1953) 88 CLR 353, 370–1; Plaintiff M68/2015 v Minister for Immigration and Border Protection (2016) 257 CLR 42, 66 [23] (French CJ, Kiefel and Nettle JJ), 76 [64] (Bell J), 123 [235] (Keane J) (‘Plaintiff M68’). This is an exception to the US doctrine of mootness: Southern Pacific Terminal Co v Interstate Commerce Commission 219 US 498, 515 (Justice McKenna for the Court) (1911); Roe v Wade 410 US 113, 125 (Justice Blackmun for the Court) (1973).
41. Cormack v Cope (1974) 131 CLR 432, 453–5 (Barwick CJ), 464–5 (Menzies J) (‘Cormack v Cope’); Osborne v Commonwealth (1911) 12 CLR 321, 351–2 (Barton J), 356 (O’Connor J); Hughes and Vale Pty Ltd v Gair (1954) 90 CLR 203, 205 (Dixon CJ).
42. State Boundaries Case (n 23) 708 (O’Connor J); Kahn v Board of Examiners (Vic) (1939) 62 CLR 422, 437 (Starke J). See also PH Lane, The Australian Federal System (Law Book, 2nd ed, 1979) 588.
43. State Boundaries Case (n 23) 674–5 (Griffith CJ); South Australia v Commonwealth (1942) 65 CLR 373, 409 (Latham CJ) (‘South Australia v Commonwealth’); Victoria v Commonwealth (1971) 122 CLR 353, 363 (Barwick CJ).
44. Thomas (n 1) 354 [105] (Gummow and Crennan JJ).
45. State Boundaries Case (n 23) 675 (Giffith CJ), 709 (O’Connor J).
46. Ibid 708–9 (O’Connor J).
47. Bank of New South Wales v Commonwealth (1948) 76 CLR 1, 366 (Dixon J).
48. Erwin Chemerinsky, Constitutional Law (Wolters Kluwer, 6th ed, 2020) 39.
49. Flast v Cohen, 392 US 83, 95 (1968).
50. Richard Fallon Jr et al, Hart and Weschler’s The Federal Courts and the Federal System (Thomson Reuters, 6th ed, 2009) 49–50.
51. See Cohens v Virginia, 19 US 264, 378 (Marshall CJ) (1821).
52. 369 US 186 (1962).
53. Ibid 217.
54. 566 US 189, 203–4 (2012).
55. Ibid.
56. Ibid 206.
57. 143 US 649, 672–3 (Harlan J for the Court) (1892); United States v Munoz Flores, 495 US 385, 409–10 (Scalia J concurring) (1990).
58. (2010) 183 FCR 62 (Black CJ, Perram and Jagot JJ) (‘Habib’).
59. The matter was settled before High Court consideration, when the Commonwealth paid compensation to Habib without admitting liability.
60. Underhill v Hernandez, 168 US 250, 252 (Fuller CJ) (1897).
61. Habib (n 58) 77 [38].
62. 5 US 137, 177 (Marshall J) (1803).
63. Australian Communist Party v Commonwealth (1951) 83 CLR 1, 262 (Fullagar J); Habib (n 58) 72 [25].
64. Habib (n 58) 74 [29] (Perram J).
65. Ibid 73 [27].
66. Ibid 100 [129].
67. Ibid 73 [28].
68. (1954) 90 CLR 353 (Dixon CJ, McTiernan, Webb, Fullager, Kitto and Taylor JJ).
69. Ibid 371. See also at 385 (Kitto J).
70. Palmer v Ayres (2017) 259 CLR 478, 494 [37] (Kiefel, Keane, Nettle and Gordon JJ.
71. Habib (n 58) 74–5 [31].
72. Ibid.
73. Marbury v Madison (n 62) 177.
74. Ibid 165–6.
75. Stephen Gageler, ‘Foundations of Australian Federalism and the Role of Judicial Review’ (1987) 17(3) Federal Law Review 162, 174.
76. Australian Communist Party v Commonwealth (n 63) 262.
77. Ibid 262–3.
78. Attorney-General (WA) v Marquet (2003) 217 CLR 545, 570 [66] (Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Hayne and Heydon JJ).
79. R v Richards; Ex parte Fitzpatrick and Browne (1955) 92 CLR 157, 165 (Dixon CJ) (‘R v Richards; Ex parte Fitzpatrick and Browne’).
80. (1988) 19 FCR 347 (Gummow J) (‘Re Ditfort’).
81. Attorney-General v Nissan [1970] AC 179, 237 (Lord Reid, Lord Morris of Borth-y-Gest, Lord Pearce, Lord Wilber-force, Lord Pearson and Lord Reid); Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service [1985] AC 374, 418; Fiona Wheeler, ‘Judicial Review of Prerogative Power in Australia: Issues and Prospects’ (1992) 14(4) Sydney Law Review 432.
82. Re Ditfort (n 80) 369; Thorpe (n 18) 777; Habib (n 58) [31], Attorney-General (Cth) v Ogawa (2020) 281 FCR 1, [67] (Allsop CJ, Flick and Griffiths JJ).
83. Re Ditfort (n 80) 369.
84. Ibid 370.
85. Thomas (n 1) 354 [105] (Gummow and Crennan JJ).
86. Thorpe (n 18) 778–9.
87. Victoria v Commonwealth (1975) 134 CLR 81, 135.
88. Ibid 135, 138.
89. (2018) 264 CLR 328, [72], citing Geoffrey Lindell, ‘The Justiciability of Political Questions: Recent Developments’ in Hoon Phun Lee and George Winterton (eds), Australian Constitutional Perspectives (Law Book Co, 1992) 180, 184.
90. Brandon Smith, ‘Reconceptualising “Justiciability”: Crafting a Coherent Framework for Australia’s Unique Constitutional Context’ (2022) 50(3) Federal Law Review 371.
91. Ibid 387–8.
92. Ibid 389.
93. Ibid 388.
94. Ibid 397.
95. Official Record of the Debates of the Australasian Federal Convention (Melbourne), 31 January 1898, 319.
96. Boilermakers (n 12) 272–3 (Dixon CJ, McTiernan, Fullagar and Kitto JJ).
97. Smith (n 90) 399.
98. Kartinyeri v Commonwealth (1998) 195 CLR 336 [158] (Kirby J).
99. State Boundaries Case (n 23) 707.
100. Melbourne Corporation v Commonwealth (1947) 74 CLR 31, 82 (‘Melbourne Corporation’).
101. Baker v Carr (n 52) 211–12.
102. Ibid 211; Hicks v Ruddock (2007) 156 FCR 574, 582–6 (Tamberlin J).
103. Re Canavan (2017) 263 CLR 284, 304 [37], 317 [86] (Kiefel CJ, Bell, Gageler, Keane, Nettle, Bell, Gordon and Edelman JJ).
104. (2011) 244 CLR 144 (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Heydon, Crennan, Kiefel, Bell JJ) (‘Plaintiff M70’).
105. Ibid 201 [135–36] (Gummow, Hayne, Crennan and Bell JJ).
106. Ibid 209 [163].
107. Ibid.
108. Ibid 157–8 [2] (citations omitted).
109. Ibid 209 [163]; Habib (n 58) 68 [14] (Perram J), 101 [134] (Jagot J).
110. [1982] AC 888 (‘Buttes Gas’). See also Kuwait Airways Corporation v Iraqi Airways Co [Nos 4 and 5] [2002] 2 AC 883, 1080–1 (Lord Nicholls).
111. Buttes Gas (n 110) 932.
112. Ibid 938.
113. Ibid 931.
114. (2003) 126 FCR 354 (‘Petrotimor’).
115. Ibid 369 [44] (Black CJ and Hill J, Beaumont J agreeing at 415 [155]).
116. Ibid [9]–[31].
117. See ibid [33]–[36].
118. [1893] AC 602; see, eg, Petrotimor (n 114) [37]–[41].
119. New South Wales v Commonwealth (1975) 135 CLR 337, 388 (Gibbs J) (‘Seas and Submerged Lands Case’); Mabo v Queensland (No 2) (1992) 175 CLR 1, 31–32 (Brennan J) (‘Mabo’); Baker v Carr (n 52) 212.
120. (1906) 3 CLR 479.
121. Lucasfilm Limited v Ainsworth [2012] 1 AC 208, 241 [106] (Lord Phillips PSC, Lord Walker, Baroness Hale and Lord Collins JJSC).
122. Regie Nationale des Usines Renault SA v Zhang (2002) 210 CLR 491, 520 [76] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ); Moti v The Queen (2011) 245 CLR 456, 474 [49] (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ) (‘Moti’).
123. Petrotimor (n 114) 369 [48] (Black CJ and Hill J).
124. (1988) 165 CLR 30.
125. Ibid 40 (Mason CJ, Wilson, Deane, Dawson, Toohey and Gaudron JJ).
126. Ibid 41.
127. Cf Habib (n 58) 79 [40] (Perram J).
128. Ibid 78 [40].
129. Cf Richard Garnett, ‘Foreign States in Australian Courts’ (2005) 29 Melbourne University Law Review 704, 719.
130. (2006) 154 FCR 425 (‘Kyodo’).
131. Humane Society International Inc v Kyodo Senpaku Kaisha Ltd [2005] FCA 664, [24].
132. Kyodo (n 130) 430 [10] (Black CJ and Finkelstein J).
133. Ibid 430 [12]–[13].
134. Ibid 435 [38].
135. Moti (n 122).
136. Ibid 475 [50] (French CJ, Gummow, Hayne, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ).
137. Ibid 475–6 [51]–[52].
138. Mabo (No 2) (n 119) 31–2 (Brennan J).
139. Plaintiff M68 (n 40) 73.
140. Ibid 73 [52] (French CJ, Kiefel and Nettle JJ), 88 [102] (Bell J), 110 [181] (Gageler J), 129 [258] (Keane J).
141. Ibid 126 [248]–[249].
142. Ibid 128 [252].
143. Ibid 129 [257].
144. Rayner Thwaites, ‘The Changing Landscape of Non-Justiciability’ [2016] (1) New Zealand Law Review 31, 55.
145. [2015] AC 359.
146. Ibid 376 [39] (Lord Neuberger PSC, Lords Sumption and Hodge JJSC, Lords Nance and Clarke agreeing).
147. Ibid [40].
148. Ibid 377–8 [42]–[43].
149. Belhaj v Straw [2017] AC 964.
150. Ibid 1014–16 [89]–[90] (Lord Mance JSC).
151. Ibid 1122 [168] (Lord Neuberger PSC, Lord Wilson JSC agreeing), 1167 [268], 1170 [278] (Lord Sumption JSC, Lord Hughes JSC agreeing).
152. Ibid 1156–7 [246]–[247] (Lord Sumption JSC, Lord Hughes JSC agreeing).
153. Ibid 1157 [247].
154. Re Ditfort (n 80) 370 (Gummow J).
155. Salaman v Secretary of State in Council of India [1906] 1 KB 613, 639 (Fletcher Moulton LJ) (‘Salaman’).
156. (1970) 123 CLR 361 (‘Tasmanian Breweries’).
157. Ibid 375–6 (Kitto J).
158. Ibid 376.
159. Ibid 400. See also R v Spicer; Ex parte Waterside Workers’ Federation of Australia (1957) 100 CLR 312, 317 (Dixon CJ, Williams, Kitto and Taylor JJ).
160. (1987) 15 FCR 274 (‘Peko-Wallsend’).
161. Ibid 278–9 (Bowen CJ, agreeing with Wilcox J).
162. See, eg, Chris Finn, ‘The Justiciability of Administrative Decisions: A Redundant Concept?’ (2002) 30(2) Federal Law Review 239.
163. Peko-Wallsend (n 160) 305–6. See also at 280 (Black CJ).
164. Attorney-General (Cth) v Alinta (2008) 233 CLR 542, 553 (Gummow J).
165. Thomas (n 1) 354–5 [107]–[109].
166. Leslie Zines, The High Court and the Constitution (Federation Press, 5th ed, 2008) 253, approved in Thomas (n 1) 351 [91].
167. Mabo (n 119) 32 (Brennan J).
168. Salaman (n 155) 639 (Fletcher Moulton LJ); Seas and Submerged Lands Case (n 119) 388 (Gibbs J).
169. Huddart Parker (n 7) 357 (Griffith CJ).
170. See also Salaman (n 155) 639–41 (Fletcher Moulton LJ).
171. Seas and Submerged Lands Case (n 119) 388–9 (Gibbs J); Petrotimor (n 114) 365 [28] (Black CJ and Hill J).
172. Gerhardy v Brown (1985) 159 CLR 70, 138–9 (Brennan J) (‘Gerhardy v Brown’).
173. Tasmanian Breweries (n 156) 376 (Kitto J).
174. Gerhardy v Brown (n 172) 138–9. See also Davis v Minister for Immigration, Citizenship, Migrant Services and Multicultural Affairs (2021) 288 FCR 23, 35 [39] (Kenny J).
175. Thomas (n 1) 330-3 [20]–[27]; Vella v Commissioner of Police (NSW) (2019) 269 CLR 219, 260 [88] (Bell, Keane, Nettle and Edelman JJ).
176. Thomas (n 1) 352 [100].
177. Ibid 417 [317] (Kirby J), 468 [475]–[476] (Hayne J).
178. Ibid 419 [323] (Kirby J), 475 [504], 479 [516] (Hayne J).
179. Ibid 477 [510] (Hayne J).
180. South Australia v Commonwealth (n 43), 141 (Dixon J). See also Melbourne Corporation (n 100) 82.
181. Cormack v Cope (n 41).
182. Ibid 461.
183. Ibid 454.
184. Ibid 460.
185. Ibid 466, 467.
186. Ibid 472.
187. PMA Case (n 83).
188. (1975) 134 CLR 201.
189. PMA Case (n 83) 118.
190. Cormack v Cope (n 41) 467.
191. Ibid 474.
192. AZC20 (n 32) [3], [29], [47] (Kiefel CJ, Gordon and Steward JJ), [89]–[90] (Edelman J).
193. R v Chaytor [2011] 1 AC 684, [13], [26] (Lord Phillips).
194. Ibid.
195. Ibid 712 [63].
196. Ibid 697–8 [14]–[16], affd R (Miller) v Prime Minister [2020] AC 373, 411 [65]–[69] (Lady Hale and Lord Reed) (‘Miller (No 2)’).
197. (2018) 264 CLR 328 (Kiefel CJ, Bell, Keane and Edelman JJ).
198. Ibid 347 [53].
199. Ibid 341 [29].
200. Ibid 341 [29]; 357 [107]–[108], 359 [112]–[113] (Nettle and Gordon JJ).
201. R v Richards; Ex parte Fitzpatrick and Browne (n 79).
202. Ibid 162–5.
203. Edinburgh and Dalkeith Railway Co v Wauchope (1842) 1 Bell 252, 278–9 (Lord Campbell). See Pickin v British Railways Board [1974] AC 765, 786–7. See also R (Jackson) v Attorney-General [2006] 1 AC 262, 281 [27].
204. PMA Case (n 83) 163 (McTiernan J). Cf Bribery Commissioner v Ranasinghe [1965] AC 172; Attorney-General (NSW) v Trethowan (1931) 44 CLR 394.
205. Cormack v Cope (n 41) 452.
206. Ibid 454.
207. See, eg, Amanda Sapienza, Judicial Review of Non-Statutory Executive Action (Federation Press, 2020).
208. Williams v Commonwealth (No 2) (2014) 252 CLR 416, 468 [80]–[81] (French CJ, Hayne, Crennan, Kiefel, Bell and Keane JJ); Re Ditfort (n 80) 369 (Gummow J); Ruddock v Vadarlis (2001) 110 FCR 491, 539–41 (French J).
209. [1985] 1 AC 374, 410, 418 (‘CCSU’). In Australia: R v Toohey; Ex parte Northern Land Council (1981) 151 CLR 170, 220 (Mason J); Aye v Minister for Immigration and Citizenship (2010) 187 FCR 449, 469–70 [98] (Black CJ).
210. CCSU (n 209) 481.
211. (2020) 281 FCR 1, 16 [73], 17 [75] (Allsop CJ, Flick and Griffiths JJ) (‘Ogawa’).
212. Buck v Bavone (1976) 135 CLR 110, 118–19 (Gibbs J).
213. Ogawa (n 211) 20 [84].
214. Miller (No 2) (n 196).
215. Ibid 407 (Lady Hale and Lord Reed).
216. Ibid 403 [35].