Cellular and molecular interactions in coinfection with hepatitis C virus and human immunodeficiency virus

Barbara Roe; William W. Hall

doi:10.1017/S1462399408000847

Cellular and molecular interactions in coinfection with hepatitis C virus and human immunodeficiency virus

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 20 October 2008

Barbara Roe and

William W. Hall

Show author details

Barbara Roe: Affiliation:
Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases (CRID), School of Medicine & Medical Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland.
William W. Hall*: Affiliation:
Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases (CRID), School of Medicine & Medical Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland.
*: *Corresponding Author: William W. Hall, Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland; Tel: +353 1 7161236; Fax: +353 1 7161239; E-mail: [email protected]

Article contents

Abstract
References

Get access

Rights & Permissions

Abstract

Coinfection with hepatitis C virus (HCV) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is associated with increased HCV replication and a more rapid progression to severe liver disease, including the development of cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of the pathogenesis of HCV/HIV coinfection and the cellular and molecular mechanisms associated with the accelerated course of liver disease. The strength and breadth of HCV-specific T-cell responses are reduced in HCV/HIV-coinfected patients compared with those infected with HCV alone, suggesting that the immunosuppression induced by HIV compromises immune responses to HCV. HCV is not directly cytopathic, but many of the pathological changes observed in the liver of infected patients are a direct result of the intrahepatic antiviral immune responses. Apoptosis also has a role in HCV-mediated liver damage through the induction of apoptotic pathways involving the host immune response and HCV viral proteins. This review summarises the evidence correlating the role of cell-mediated immune responses and apoptosis with liver disease progression in HCV/HIV-coinfected patients.

Type: Review Article
Information: Expert Reviews in Molecular Medicine , Volume 10 , October 2008 , e30

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1462399408000847 [Opens in a new window]
Copyright: Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1Pawlotsky, J.M. (2004) Pathophysiology of hepatitis C virus infection and related liver disease. Trends Microbiol 12, 96-102CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

2Perz, J. et al. (2004). Estimated Global Prevalence of Hepatitis C Virus Infection. 42nd Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, Boston, MA, USA. Sept 30-Oct 3, 2004. Poster 957Google Scholar

3Palitzsch, K.D. et al. (1999) Prevalence of antibodies against hepatitis C virus in the adult German population. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 11, 1215-1220CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

4Mutimer, D.J. et al. (1995) Hepatitis C virus infection in the asymptomatic British blood donor. J Viral Hepat 2, 47-53CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

5Meffre, C. et al. (2006) Prevalence of hepatitis B and hepatitis C in France, 2004. Journal of Clinical Virology 36 (Suppl 2), S197CrossRef Google Scholar

6Armstrong, G.L. et al. (2006) The prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in the United States, 1999 through 2002. Ann Intern Med 144, 705-714CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

7Higuchi, M., Tanaka, E. and Kiyosawa, K. (2002) Epidemiology and clinical aspects on hepatitis C. Jpn J Infect Dis 55, 69-77Google Scholar PubMed

8Lei, X., Shigeko, N. and Deng, X. (1999) Prevalence of Hepatitis C Virus Infection in the General Population and Patients with Liver Disease in China. Hepatology Research 14, 135-143Google Scholar

9Xia, G. et al. (1996) Prevalence of Hepatitis B and C Virus Infections in the General Chinese Population. Results from a Nationwide Cross-sectional Seroepidemiologic Study of Hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E Virus Infections in China, 1992. International Hepatology Communications 5, 62-73CrossRef Google Scholar

10Frank, C. et al. (2000) The role of parenteral antischistosomal therapy in the spread of hepatitis C virus in Egypt. Lancet 355, 887-891CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

11Schmeding, M. et al. (2007) Hepatitis C recurrence and fibrosis progression are not increased after living donor liver transplantation: a single-center study of 289 patients. Liver Transpl 13, 687-692CrossRef Google Scholar

12Denis, F. et al. (1997). [Seroprevalence of HBV, HCV and HDV hepatitis markers in 500 patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus]. Pathol Biol (Paris) 45, 701-708Google Scholar PubMed

13Jones, R., Dunning, J. and Nelson, M. (2005) HIV and hepatitis C coinfection. Int J Clin Pract 59, 1082-1087CrossRef Google Scholar

14Sulkowski, M.S. and Thomas, D.L. (2003) Hepatitis C in the HIV-Infected Person. Ann Intern Med 138, 197-207CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

15Seeff, L.B. (2002) Natural history of chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology 36 (Suppl 1), S35-46Google Scholar PubMed

16Garcia-Samaniego, J. et al. (2001) Hepatocellular carcinoma in HIV-infected patients with chronic hepatitis C. Am J Gastroenterol 96, 179-183CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

17Soto, B. et al. (1997) Human immunodeficiency virus infection modifies the natural history of chronic parenterally-acquired hepatitis C with an unusually rapid progression to cirrhosis. J Hepatol 26, 1-5CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

18Palella, F.J. Jr. et al. (1998) Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. HIV Outpatient Study Investigators. N Engl J Med 338, 853-860CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

19Weber, R. et al. (2006) Liver-related deaths in persons infected with the human immunodeficiency virus: the D:A:D study. Arch Intern Med 166, 1632-1641Google Scholar

20Robertson, B. et al. (1998) Classification, nomenclature, and database development for hepatitis C virus (HCV) and related viruses: proposals for standardization. International Committee on Virus Taxonomy. Arch Virol 143, 2493-2503CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

21Kaito, M. et al. (1994) Hepatitis C virus particle detected by immunoelectron microscopic study. J Gen Virol 75, 1755-1760CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

22Rice, C. (1996). Flaviviridae: The viruses and their replication. In Fields Virology, 3rd ed.Lippencott-Raven, PhiladelphiaGoogle Scholar

23Tsukiyama-Kohara, K. et al. (1992) Internal ribosome entry site within hepatitis C virus RNA. J Virol 66, 1476-1483CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

24Grakoui, A. et al. (1993) Expression and identification of hepatitis C virus polyprotein cleavage products. J Virol 67, 1385-1395CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

25Santolini, E., Migliaccio, G. and La Monica, N. (1994) Biosynthesis and biochemical properties of the hepatitis C virus core protein. J Virol 68, 3631-3641CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

26Griffin, S.D. et al. (2003) The p7 protein of hepatitis C virus forms an ion channel that is blocked by the antiviral drug, Amantadine. FEBS Lett 535, 34-38CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

27Pavlovic, D. et al. (2003) The hepatitis C virus p7 protein forms an ion channel that is inhibited by long-alkyl-chain iminosugar derivatives. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 100, 6104-6108CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

28Steinmann, E. et al. (2007) Hepatitis C Virus p7 Protein Is Crucial for Assembly and Release of Infectious Virions. PLoS Pathog 3, e103CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

29Grakoui, A. et al. (1993) A second hepatitis C virus-encoded proteinase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 90, 10583-10587CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

30Lindenbach, B.D. and Rice, C.M. (2005) Unravelling hepatitis C virus replication from genome to function. Nature 436, 933-938CrossRef Google Scholar

31Brass, V., Moradpour, D. and Blum, H.E. (2006) Molecular virology of hepatitis C virus (HCV, 2006 update. Int J Med Sci 3, 29-34CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

32Elazar, M. et al. (2004) An N-terminal amphipathic helix in hepatitis C virus (HCV) NS4B mediates membrane association, correct localization of replication complex proteins, and HCV RNA replication. J Virol 78, 11393-11400CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

33Egger, D. et al. (2002) Expression of hepatitis C virus proteins induces distinct membrane alterations including a candidate viral replication complex. J Virol 76, 5974-5984CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

34Tan, S.L. and Katze, M.G. (2001) How hepatitis C virus counteracts the interferon response: the jury is still out on NS5A. Virology 284, 1-12CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

35Behrens, S.E., Tomei, L. and De Francesco, R. (1996) Identification and properties of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase of hepatitis C virus. Embo J 15, 12-22CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

36Cleghorn, F.R. et al. (2005). Human Immunodeficiency Viruses. In Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases, pp. 2119-2133. Elsevier, Churchill Livingstone, New York.Google Scholar

37Frankel, A.D. and Young, J.A. (1998) HIV-1: fifteen proteins and an RNA. Annu Rev Biochem 67, 1-25CrossRef Google Scholar

38Hearps, A.C. and Jans, D.A. (2007) Regulating the functions of the HIV-1 matrix protein. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 23, 341-346CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

39Paxton, W., Connor, R.I. and Landau, N.R. (1993) Incorporation of Vpr into human immunodeficiency virus type 1 virions: requirement for the p6 region of gag and mutational analysis. J Virol 67, 7229-7237CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

40Hill, M., Tachedjian, G. and Mak, J. (2005) The packaging and maturation of the HIV-1 Pol proteins. Curr HIV Res 3, 73-85CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

41Arya, S.K. et al. (1985) Trans-activator gene of human T-lymphotropic virus type III (HTLV-III). Science 229, 69-73CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

42Fisher, A.G. et al. (1986) The trans-activator gene of HTLV-III is essential for virus replication. Nature 320, 367-371CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

43Felber, B.K. et al. (1989) rev protein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 affects the stability and transport of the viral mRNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 86, 1495-1499CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

44Garcia, J.V. and Miller, A.D. (1992) Downregulation of cell surface CD4 by nef. Res Virol 143, 52-55CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

45Willey, R.L. et al. (1992) Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Vpu protein regulates the formation of intracellular gp160-CD4 complexes. J Virol 66, 226-234CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

46Heinzinger, N.K. et al. (1994) The Vpr protein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 influences nuclear localization of viral nucleic acids in nondividing host cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 91, 7311-7315CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

47Greub, G. et al. (2000) Clinical progression, survival, and immune recovery during antiretroviral therapy in patients with HIV-1 and hepatitis C virus coinfection: the Swiss HIV Cohort Study. Lancet 356, 1800-1805CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

48De Luca, A. et al. (2002) Coinfection with hepatitis viruses and outcome of initial antiretroviral regimens in previously naive HIV-infected subjects. Arch Intern Med 162, 2125-2132CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

49Piroth, L. et al. (2000) Hepatitis C virus coinfection is a negative prognostic factor for clinical evolution in human immunodeficiency virus-positive patients. J Viral Hepat 7, 302-308CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

50Rockstroh, J.K. et al. (2005) Influence of hepatitis C virus infection on HIV-1 disease progression and response to highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis 192, 992-1002CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

51Sulkowski, M.S. et al. (2002) Hepatitis C and progression of HIV disease. J Am Med Ass 288, 199-206CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

52Bonacini, M. et al. (2004) Survival in patients with HIV infection and viral hepatitis B or C: a cohort study. Aids 18, 2039-2045CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

53Dorrucci, M. et al. (1995) Coinfection of hepatitis C virus with human immunodeficiency virus and progression to AIDS. Italian Seroconversion Study. J Infect Dis 172, 1503-1508CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

54Lincoln, D., Petoumenos, K. and Dore, G.J. (2003) HIV/HBV and HIV/HCV coinfection, and outcomes following highly active antiretroviral therapy. HIV Med 4, 241-249CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

55Staples, C.T. Jr, Rimland, D. and Dudas, D. (1999) Hepatitis C in the HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) Atlanta V.A. (Veterans Affairs Medical Center) Cohort Study (HAVACS, the effect of coinfection on survival. Clin Infect Dis 29, 150-154CrossRef Google Scholar

56Melvin, D.C. et al. (2000) The impact of coinfection with hepatitis C virus and HIV on the tolerability of antiretroviral therapy. Aids 14, 463-465CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

57Sulkowski, M.S. et al. (2002) Hepatotoxicity associated with nevirapine or efavirenz-containing antiretroviral therapy: role of hepatitis C and B infections. Hepatology 35, 182-189CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

58Bonacini, M. et al. (1999) Patients coinfected with human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis C virus demonstrate higher levels of hepatic HCV RNA. J Viral Hepat 6, 203-208CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

59Sherman, K.E. et al. (1993) Quantitative evaluation of hepatitis C virus RNA in patients with concurrent human immunodeficiency virus infections. J Clin Microbiol 31, 2679-2682CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

60Daar, E.S. et al. (2001) Relation between HIV-1 and hepatitis C viral load in patients with hemophilia. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 26, 466-472CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

61Eyster, M.E. et al. (1994) Increasing hepatitis C virus RNA levels in hemophiliacs: relationship to human immunodeficiency virus infection and liver disease. Multicenter Hemophilia Cohort Study. Blood 84, 1020-1023CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

62Hadziyannis, S.J. et al. (2004) Peginterferon-alpha2a and ribavirin combination therapy in chronic hepatitis C: a randomized study of treatment duration and ribavirin dose. Ann Intern Med 140, 346-355CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

63Manns, M.P. et al. (2001) Peginterferon alfa-2b plus ribavirin compared with interferon alfa-2b plus ribavirin for initial treatment of chronic hepatitis C: a randomised trial. Lancet 358, 958-965CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

64Carrat, F. et al. (2004) Pegylated interferon alfa-2b vs standard interferon alfa-2b, plus ribavirin, for chronic hepatitis C in HIV-infected patients: a randomized controlled trial. J Am Med Ass 292, 2839-2848CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

65Chung, R.T. et al. (2004) Peginterferon Alfa-2a plus ribavirin versus interferon alfa-2a plus ribavirin for chronic hepatitis C in HIV-coinfected persons. N Engl J Med 351, 451-459CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

66Torriani, F.J. et al. (2004) Peginterferon Alfa-2a plus ribavirin for chronic hepatitis C virus infection in HIV-infected patients. N Engl J Med 351, 438-450CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

67Nunez, M. et al. (2007) Role of weight-based ribavirin dosing and extended duration of therapy in chronic hepatitis C in HIV-infected patients: the PRESCO trial. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 23, 972-982CrossRef Google Scholar

68Benhamou, Y. et al. (1999) Liver fibrosis progression in human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis C virus coinfected patients. The Multivirc Group. Hepatology 30, 1054-1058CrossRef Google Scholar

69Canchis, P.W. et al. (2004) Intrahepatic CD4+ cell depletion in hepatitis C virus/HIV-coinfected patients. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 37, 1125-1131CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

70Brau, N. et al. (2006) Slower fibrosis progression in HIV/HCV-coinfected patients with successful HIV suppression using antiretroviral therapy. J Hepatol 44, 47-55CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

71Qurishi, N. et al. (2003) Effect of antiretroviral therapy on liver-related mortality in patients with HIV and hepatitis C virus coinfection. Lancet 362, 1708-1713CrossRef Google Scholar

72Diepolder, H.M. et al. (1995) Possible mechanism involving T-lymphocyte response to non-structural protein 3 in viral clearance in acute hepatitis C virus infection. Lancet 346, 1006-1007CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

73Lechner, F. et al. (2000) Analysis of successful immune responses in persons infected with hepatitis C virus. J Exp Med 191, 1499-1512CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

74Wedemeyer, H. et al. (2002) Impaired effector function of hepatitis C virus-specific CD8+ T cells in chronic hepatitis C virus infection. J Immunol 169, 3447-3458CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

75Grakoui, A. et al. (2003) HCV persistence and immune evasion in the absence of memory T cell help. Science 302, 659-662CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

76Shoukry, N.H. et al. (2003) Memory CD8+ T cells are required for protection from persistent hepatitis C virus infection. J Exp Med 197, 1645-1655CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

77Shedlock, D.J. and Shen, H. (2003) Requirement for CD4 T cell help in generating functional CD8 T cell memory. Science 300, 337-339CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

78Gerlach, J.T. et al. (1999) Recurrence of hepatitis C virus after loss of virus-specific CD4(+) T-cell response in acute hepatitis C. Gastroenterology 117, 933-941CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

79Tsai, S.L. et al. (1997) Detection of type 2-like T-helper cells in hepatitis C virus infection: implications for hepatitis C virus chronicity. Hepatology 25, 449-458CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

80Bjoro, K. et al. (1994) Hepatitis C infection in patients with primary hypogammaglobulinemia after treatment with contaminated immune globulin. N Engl J Med 331, 1607-1611CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

81Chang, K.M. et al. (1997) Immunological significance of cytotoxic T lymphocyte epitope variants in patients chronically infected by the hepatitis C virus. J Clin Invest 100, 2376-2385CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

82Frasca, L. et al. (1999) Hypervariable region 1 variants act as TCR antagonists for hepatitis C virus-specific CD4+ T cells. J Immunol 163, 650-658CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

83Erickson, A.L. et al. (2001) The outcome of hepatitis C virus infection is predicted by escape mutations in epitopes targeted by cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Immunity 15, 883-895CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

84Timm, J. et al. (2004) CD8 epitope escape and reversion in acute HCV infection. J Exp Med 200(12), 1593-604CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

85Weiner, A. et al. (1995) Persistent hepatitis C virus infection in a chimpanzee is associated with emergence of a cytotoxic T lymphocyte escape variant. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 92, 2755-2759CrossRef Google Scholar

86Thimme, R. et al. (2001) Determinants of viral clearance and persistence during acute hepatitis C virus infection. J Exp Med 194, 1395-1406CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

87Bain, C. et al. (2001) Impaired allostimulatory function of dendritic cells in chronic hepatitis C infection. Gastroenterology 120, 512-524CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

88Brady, M.T. et al. (2003) Hepatitis C virus non-structural protein 4 suppresses Th1 responses by stimulating IL-10 production from monocytes. Eur J Immunol 33, 3448-3457CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

89Dolganiuc, A. et al. (2003) Hepatitis C virus core and nonstructural protein 3 proteins induce pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and inhibit dendritic cell differentiation. J Immunol 170, 5615-5624CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

90Disson, O. et al. (2004) Impaired clearance of virus-infected hepatocytes in transgenic mice expressing the hepatitis C virus polyprotein. Gastroenterology 126, 859-872CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

91Frelin, L. et al. (2006) The hepatitis C virus and immune evasion: non-structural 3/4A transgenic mice are resistant to lethal tumour necrosis factor {alpha} mediated liver disease. Gut 55, 1475-1483CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

92Capa, L. et al. (2007) Influence of HCV genotype and coinfection with human immunodeficiency virus on CD4(+) and CD8(+) T-cell responses to hepatitis C virus. J Med Virol 79, 503-510CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

93Dutoit, V. et al. (2005) Differences in HCV-specific T cell responses between chronic HCV infection and HIV/HCV coinfection. Eur J Immunol 35, 3493-3504CrossRef Google Scholar

94Graham, C.S. et al. (2004) Comparison of HCV-specific intrahepatic CD4+ T cells in HIV/HCV versus HCV. Hepatology 40, 125-132CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

95Valdez, H. et al. (2000) Immune responses to hepatitis C and non-hepatitis C antigens in hepatitis C virus infected and HIV-1 coinfected patients. Aids 14, 2239-2246CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

96Graham, C.S. et al. (2005) Antigen-specific immune responses and liver histology in HIV and hepatitis C coinfection. Aids 19, 767-773CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

97Brainard, D.M. et al. (2007) Decreased CXCR3+ CD8 T cells in advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection suggest that a homing defect contributes to cytotoxic T-lymphocyte dysfunction. J Virol 81, 8439-8450CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

98Lohr, H.F. et al. (1998) The cellular immune responses induced in the follow-up of interferon-alpha treated patients with chronic hepatitis C may determine the therapy outcome. J Hepatol 29, 524-532CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

99Thomas, D.L. (2006) Options for treatment of hepatitis C in HIV-infected persons. J Hepatol 44 (Suppl.) S40-43CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

100Koziel, M.J. et al. (1992) Intrahepatic cytotoxic T lymphocytes specific for hepatitis C virus in persons with chronic hepatitis. J Immunol 149, 3339-3344CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

101Tseng, C.T. et al. (2001) Characterization of liver T-cell receptor gammadelta T cells obtained from individuals chronically infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV, evidence for these T cells playing a role in the liver pathology associated with HCV infections. Hepatology 33, 1312-1320CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

102Jacobson Brown, P.M. and Neuman, M.G. (2001) Immunopathogenesis of hepatitis C viral infection: Th1/Th2 responses and the role of cytokines. Clin Biochem 34, 167-171CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

103Alkhatib, G. et al. (1996) CC CKR5: a RANTES, MIP-1alpha, MIP-1beta receptor as a fusion cofactor for macrophage-tropic HIV-1. Science 272, 1955-1958CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

104Feng, Y. et al. (1996) HIV-1 entry cofactor: functional cDNA cloning of a seven-transmembrane, G protein-coupled receptor. Science 272, 872-877CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

105Kim, C.H. et al. (2001) Rules of chemokine receptor association with T cell polarization in vivo. J Clin Invest 108, 1331-1339CrossRef Google Scholar

106Sallusto, F. et al. (1998) Flexible programs of chemokine receptor expression on human polarized T helper 1 and 2 lymphocytes. J Exp Med 187, 875-883CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

107Apolinario, A. et al. (2002) Increased expression of T cell chemokines and their receptors in chronic hepatitis C: relationship with the histological activity of liver disease. Am J Gastroenterol 97, 2861-2870CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

108Shields, P.L. et al. (1999) Chemokine and chemokine receptor interactions provide a mechanism for selective T cell recruitment to specific liver compartments within hepatitis C-infected liver. J Immunol 163, 6236-6243CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

109Taub, D.D. et al. (1993) Recombinant human interferon-inducible protein 10 is a chemoattractant for human monocytes and T lymphocytes and promotes T cell adhesion to endothelial cells. J Exp Med 177, 1809-1814CrossRef Google Scholar

110Butera, D. et al. (2005) Plasma chemokine levels correlate with the outcome of antiviral therapy in patients with hepatitis C. Blood 106, 1175-1182CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

111Mihm, S., Schweyer, S. and Ramadori, G. (2003) Expression of the chemokine IP-10 correlates with the accumulation of hepatic IFN-gamma and IL-18 mRNA in chronic hepatitis C but not in hepatitis B. J Med Virol 70, 562-570CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

112Harvey, C.E. et al. (2003) Expression of the chemokine IP-10 (CXCL10) by hepatocytes in chronic hepatitis C virus infection correlates with histological severity and lobular inflammation. J Leukoc Biol 74, 360-369CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

113Romero, A.I. et al. (2006) Interferon (IFN)-gamma-inducible protein-10: association with histological results, viral kinetics, and outcome during treatment with pegylated IFN-alpha 2a and ribavirin for chronic hepatitis C virus infection. J Infect Dis 194, 895-903CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

114Diago, M. et al. (2006) Association of pretreatment serum interferon gamma inducible protein 10 levels with sustained virological response to peginterferon plus ribavirin therapy in genotype 1 infected patients with chronic hepatitis C. Gut 55, 374-379CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

115Cinque, P. et al. (2005) Cerebrospinal fluid interferon-gamma-inducible protein 10 (IP-10, CXCL10) in HIV-1 infection. J Neuroimmunol 168, 154-163CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

116Stylianou, E. et al. (2000) Interferons and interferon (IFN)-inducible protein 10 during highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART)-possible immunosuppressive role of IFN-alpha in HIV infection. Clin Exp Immunol 119, 479-485CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

117Lane, B.R. et al. (2003) The C-X-C chemokine IP-10 stimulates HIV-1 replication. Virology 307, 122-134CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

118Roe, B. et al. (2007) Elevated Serum Levels of Interferon-gamma-Inducible Protein-10 in Patients Coinfected with Hepatitis C Virus and HIV. J Infect Dis 196, 1053-1057CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

119Balasubramanian, A., Ganju, R.K. and Groopman, J.E. (2003) Hepatitis C virus and HIV envelope proteins collaboratively mediate interleukin-8 secretion through activation of p38 MAP kinase and SHP2 in hepatocytes. J Biol Chem 278, 35755-35766CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

120Kuntzen, T. et al. (2008) Intrahepatic mRNA expression in hepatitis C virus and HIV/hepatitis C virus coinfection: infiltrating cells, cytokines, and influence of HAART. Aids 22, 203-210CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

121Farinati, F. et al. (2006) Oxidative damage, pro-inflammatory cytokines, TGF-alpha and c-myc in chronic HCV-related hepatitis and cirrhosis. World J Gastroenterol 12, 2065-2069CrossRef Google Scholar

122Zekri, A.R. et al. (2005) Cytokine profile in Egyptian hepatitis C virus genotype-4 in relation to liver disease progression. World J Gastroenterol 11, 6624-6630CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

123Breen, E.C. et al. (1990) Infection with HIV is associated with elevated IL-6 levels and production. J Immunol 144, 480-484CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

124Molina, J.M. et al. (1989) Production of tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin 1 beta by monocytic cells infected with human immunodeficiency virus. J Clin Invest 84, 733-737CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

125Folks, T.M. et al. (1989) Tumor necrosis factor alpha induces expression of human immunodeficiency virus in a chronically infected T-cell clone. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 86, 2365-2368CrossRef Google Scholar

126Poli, G. et al. (1990) Interleukin 6 induces human immunodeficiency virus expression in infected monocytic cells alone and in synergy with tumor necrosis factor alpha by transcriptional and post-transcriptional mechanisms. J Exp Med 172, 151-158CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

127Poli, G., Kinter, A.L. and Fauci, A.S. (1994) Interleukin 1 induces expression of the human immunodeficiency virus alone and in synergy with interleukin 6 in chronically infected U1 cells: inhibition of inductive effects by the interleukin 1 receptor antagonist. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 91, 108-112CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

128Abbate, I. et al. (2004) Intra-hepatic messenger RNA levels for interferons and related genes in hepatitis C virus/HIV coinfected patients. Aids 18, 691-692CrossRef Google Scholar

129Blackard, J.T. et al. (2006) Intrahepatic cytokine expression is downregulated during HCV/HIV coinfection. J Med Virol 78, 202-207CrossRef Google Scholar

130Gonzalez, S.A. et al. (2007) Hepatic inflammatory cytokine mRNA expression in hepatitis C virus-human immunodeficiency virus coinfection. J Viral Hepat 15, 331-338CrossRef Google Scholar

131Sitia, G. et al. (2006) Naive HIV/HCV-coinfected patients have higher intrahepatic pro-inflammatory cytokines than coinfected patients treated with antiretroviral therapy. Antivir Ther 11, 385-389CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

132Guicciardi, M.E. and Gores, G.J. (2005) Apoptosis: a mechanism of acute and chronic liver injury. Gut 54, 1024-1033CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

133Jin, Z. and El-Deiry, W.S. (2005) Overview of cell death signaling pathways. Cancer Biol Ther 4, 139-163CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

134Rupinder, S.K., Gurpreet, A.K. and Manjeet, S. (2007) Cell suicide and caspases. Vascul Pharmacol 46, 383-393CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

135Riedl, S.J. and Salvesen, G.S. (2007) The apoptosome: signalling platform of cell death. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 8, 405-413CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

136Bantel, H. et al. (2001) Caspase activation correlates with the degree of inflammatory liver injury in chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Hepatology 34, 758-767CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

137Bantel, H. et al. (2001) Detection of elevated caspase activation and early apoptosis in liver diseases. Eur J Cell Biol 80, 230-239CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

138Calabrese, F. et al. (2000) Liver cell apoptosis in chronic hepatitis C correlates with histological but not biochemical activity or serum HCV-RNA levels. Hepatology 31, 1153-1159CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

139Woo, M. et al. (1999) In vivo evidence that caspase-3 is required for Fas-mediated apoptosis of hepatocytes. J Immunol 163, 4909-4916CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

140Kunstle, G. et al. (1997) ICE-protease inhibitors block murine liver injury and apoptosis caused by CD95 or by TNF-alpha. Immunol Lett 55, 5-10CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

141Rouquet, N. et al. (1996) ICE inhibitor YVADcmk is a potent therapeutic agent against in vivo liver apoptosis. Curr Biol 6, 1192-1195CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

142Chou, A.H. et al. (2005) Hepatitis C virus core protein modulates TRAIL-mediated apoptosis by enhancing Bid cleavage and activation of mitochondria apoptosis signaling pathway. J Immunol 174, 2160-2166CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

143Okuda, M. et al. (2002) Mitochondrial injury, oxidative stress, and antioxidant gene expression are induced by hepatitis C virus core protein. Gastroenterology 122, 366-375CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

144Otsuka, M. et al. (2002) Hepatitis C virus core protein inhibits apoptosis via enhanced Bcl-xL expression. Virology 296, 84-93CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

145Ray, R.B. et al. (1998) Inhibition of tumor necrosis factor (TNF-alpha)-mediated apoptosis by hepatitis C virus core protein. J Biol Chem 273, 2256-2259CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

146Prikhod'ko, E.A. et al. (2004) The NS3 protein of hepatitis C virus induces caspase-8-mediated apoptosis independent of its protease or helicase activities. Virology 329, 53-67CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

147Meylan, E. et al. (2005) Cardif is an adaptor protein in the RIG-I antiviral pathway and is targeted by hepatitis C virus. Nature 437, 1167-1172CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

148Chung, Y.L., Sheu, M.L. and Yen, S.H. (2003) Hepatitis C virus NS5A as a potential viral Bcl-2 homologue interacts with Bax and inhibits apoptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma. Int J Cancer 107, 65-73CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

149Wang, J. et al. (2006) Hepatitis C virus non-structural protein NS5A interacts with FKBP38 and inhibits apoptosis in Huh7 hepatoma cells. FEBS Lett 580, 4392-4400CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

150Lan, K.H. et al. (2002) HCV NS5A interacts with p53 and inhibits p53-mediated apoptosis. Oncogene 21, 4801-4811CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

151Gong, G. et al. (2001) Human hepatitis C virus NS5A protein alters intracellular calcium levels, induces oxidative stress, and activates STAT-3 and NF-kappa B. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 98, 9599-9604CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

152Street, A. et al. (2004) The Hepatitis C virus NS5A protein activates a phosphoinositide 3-kinase-dependent survival signaling cascade. J Biol Chem 279, 12232-12241CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

153Siavoshian, S. et al. (2005) Hepatitis C virus core, NS 3, NS5A, NS5B proteins induce apoptosis in mature dendritic cells. J Med Virol 75, 402-411CrossRef Google Scholar

154Munshi, N. et al. (2003) Hepatitis C and human immunodeficiency virus envelope proteins cooperatively induce hepatocytic apoptosis via an innocent bystander mechanism. J Infect Dis 188, 1192-1204CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

155Balasubramanian, A. et al. (2005) Molecular mechanism of hepatic injury in coinfection with hepatitis C virus and HIV. Clin Infect Dis 41 (Suppl. 1), S32-37CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

156Balasubramanian, A., Ganju, R.K. and Groopman, J.E. (2006) Signal transducer and activator of transcription factor 1 mediates apoptosis induced by hepatitis C virus and HIV envelope proteins in hepatocytes. J Infect Dis 194, 670-681CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

157Macias, J. et al. (2005) Increased hepatocyte fas expression and apoptosis in HIV and hepatitis C virus coinfection. J Infect Dis 192, 1566-1576CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

158Autran, B. et al. (1997) Positive effects of combined antiretroviral therapy on CD4+ T cell homeostasis and function in advanced HIV disease. Science 277, 112-116CrossRef Google Scholar

159Pontesilli, O. et al. (1999) Antigen-specific T-lymphocyte proliferative responses during highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) of HIV-1 infection. Immunol Lett 66, 213-217CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

160Tilton, J.C. et al. (2007) Changes in paracrine interleukin-2 requirement, CCR7 expression, frequency, and cytokine secretion of human immunodeficiency virus-specific CD4+ T cells are a consequence of antigen load. J Virol 81, 2713-2725CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

161Pockros, P.J. et al. (2007) Oral IDN-6556, an antiapoptotic caspase inhibitor, may lower aminotransferase activity in patients with chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology 46, 324-329CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Article contents

Cellular and molecular interactions in coinfection with hepatitis C virus and human immunodeficiency virus

Abstract

Access options

References

References

Further reading, resources and contacts

This article has been cited by the following publications. This list is generated based on data provided by Crossref.

Article contents

Cellular and molecular interactions in coinfection with hepatitis C virus and human immunodeficiency virus

Abstract

Access options

References

References

Further reading, resources and contacts

Save article to Kindle

Save article to Dropbox

Save article to Google Drive

Reply to: Submit a response

Your details

You have entered the maximum number of contributors

Conflicting interests