During the past two decades or so, rural population in Africa has increased slowly while urban population has grown dramatically. The hugely increased urban demand for cereals and pulses (which produce crop residues for livestock) and for livestock products is now the main force stimulating mixed farming systems in the semi-arid and sub-humid areas of sub-Saharan Africa. Grazing land has diminished, crop residues are becoming a more important element in raising livestock and fattening penned livestock has become profitable. The changes in land use, land tenure and the shift of livestock raising southwards in West Africa are illustrated. Farmers' adaptation to rapidly changing markets for their products and the factors of production are illustrated with examples from Senegal, Nigeria, Niger, and, by way of contrast, Kenya. The main challenges this sets to agricultural scientists are described. The livestock element in mixed farming system now requires careful economic analysis and participative research if scientists are to meet the evolving needs of farming as the urban sector enlarges.

The residual effects of three years' mulch application and the associated erosion processes, such as soil loss or deposition, on pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) growth have been investigated on a Sahelian sandy soil in field and pot studies. The smallest millet yields were found on unmulched eroded plots despite mineral phosphorus (P) applications, whereas stover mulching or manure and urine consistently resulted in larger yields. Bioassays revealed that aluminium (Al) by itself was not growth-limiting. Neither nematodes nor lack of micronutrients contributed to the small millet yields. On soil from eroded plots, millet dry matter yield tripled after P addition, and increased by a factor of 13.5 when additional nitrogen (N) was applied. High P availability was found to be the key to reversing decline in yields on erosion-affected fields, but the addition of organic material is a prerequisite to prevent acidification. Manure was more effective than straw because of the large amounts of N and P it contained. The addition of small quantities of lime (CaCO3) may partly compensate for organic matter addition by increasing soil pH and reducing P fixation. P-Bray was not a suitable indicator of plant available P on degraded sandy acid soils.

There is no one widely accepted method of managing international agricultural research and numerous different models exist. Here we review one in particular, referred to as the ‘institute without walls’, from the perspective of the UK Department for International Development's (DFID) Renewable Natural Resource (RNR) Research Strategy (1990–2006). We begin with a brief history of the RNR Research Strategy from 1990 to 2004. We then draw on nearly 15 years experience of managing one of the programmes within the RNR Research Strategy to assess critically the impact of externally and internally imposed organizational and management changes on the performance of the DFID Plant Sciences Programme (PSP). The current RNR Research Strategy (1995–2006), with its emphasis on demand-led research, has greatly increased the relevance and effectiveness of DFID's natural resources research. A comparison between the PSP in 2004 and the early 1990s inevitably concludes that the programme has been transformed: unlike in 1991, research is now firmly demand-driven, much is based in developing countries and farmers are benefiting from the research. Over time, the outputs of the long-term strategic research have been applied in practical plant breeding and participatory crop improvement programmes. Key to the success of the PSP has been the provision of continuous, long-term funding which has allowed projects time to develop and produce outputs of real value to end users. Alongside this, the ability of the PSP to build long-term, in-country partnerships has ensured the effective adoption of its research outputs. We conclude that the successes of the PSP have largely derived from (i) identification of research that is clearly demand driven, (ii) continuous long-term funding that has allowed research to move from the strategic to adaptive phase, (iii) continuity of management, and (iv) the flexibility to develop a wide range of partnerships, both in-country and overseas, based on their ability to deliver.

The CGIAR System conducts research to produce international public goods (IPG) that are of wide applicability, creating a scientific base which speeds and broadens local adaptive development. Integrated natural resources management (INRM) research is sometimes seen to be very location specific and consequently does not lend itself readily to the production of IPGs. In this paper we analyse ways in which strategic approaches to INRM research can have broad international applicability and serve as useful foundations for the development of locally adapted technologies. The paper describes the evolution of the IPG concept within the CGIAR and elaborates on five major types of IPGs that have been generated from a varied set of recent INRM research efforts. CGIAR networks have both strengths and weaknesses in INRM research and application, with enormous differences in relative research and development capacities, responsibilities and data access of its partners, making programme process evolution critical to acceptance and participation. Many of the lessons learnt regarding challenges and corresponding IPG research approaches are relevant to designing and managing future multi-scale, multi-locational, co-ordinated INRM programmes involving broad-based partnerships to address complex environmental and livelihood problems for development.

Information on the influence of date of planting on protein, oil and fatty acid composition of soybean seeds is meagre, whilst similar studies on lipoxygenase isozymes and trypsin inhibitor contents are lacking. A field experiment was conducted with nine Indian genotypes and three planting dates (spread over 23 days) to study the influence of planting dates on these seed traits. Results based upon a one-year study indicated that oil content declined with delays in planting. Oleic acid content increased from the first to third planting, while the reverse trend was observed for linolenic acid. Lipoxygenase-1 activity was reduced by delayed plantings. Protein content was the lowest and trypsin inhibitor content was the highest for the second planting. However, no differences were observed for protein and trypsin inhibitor contents between the first and third planting. Significant interactions. observed between genotype and planting date for most of the seed compositional characters suggest that the influence of late planting is genotype-dependent.

Three cultivars of Coffea arabica, Catuaí Vermelho IAC 81, Icatu Amarelo IAC 2944 and Obatã IAC 1669–20, were evaluated in relation to leaf gas exchange and potential photochemical efficiency of photosystem II under field conditions on clear and cloudy days in the wet season in southeast Brazil. Independent of levels of irradiance, leaf water potential (υleaf) values were always higher than the minimum required to affect daily net photosynthesis (PN). PN, stomatal conductance (gs), leaf transpiration (E) and the index of photochemical efficiency (Fv/Fm) declined on a clear day in all cultivars. The depression of leaf gas exchange and Fv/Fm (specially around midday) caused a strong decrease (about 70 %) in daily carbon gain on a clear day. Under cloudless conditions, gs and PN were correlated with the air vapour pressure deficit (VPDair), but not with photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) values. On a cloudy day, the daily carbon gain was barely limited by PPFD below 800 μmol m−2 s−1, the Fv/Fm values showed a slight decrease around midday, and gs and PN were positively correlated with PPFD but not with VPDair. By contrast, irrespective of the contrasting irradiance conditions during the day, PN and E were correlated with gs.

Yield efficiency of cocoa, defined as yield over a period of time divided by the increment in trunk cross-sectional area over that period, was estimated in four factorial matings in Sabah, Malaysia, evaluated at a single planting density. The parents were 18 seedlings of Upper Amazon Forastero type, broadly representative of Peruvian Amazon material, and 15 clones of Trinitario type, selected from cultivated cocoa in Ecuador, Trinidad and Papua New Guinea. Both the Upper Amazon and Trinitario parents varied in general combining ability (gca) for yield efficiency, with strong evidence of additive inheritance of the trait. Some of the Upper Amazon parents showed higher yield efficiency than many of the Trinitarios. Correlations between gcas for yield efficiency and yield were inconsistent. This is thought to be because the parents differed markedly in optimal planting density, which is higher for many of the Upper Amazons with high gca for yield efficiency than it is for some of the Trinitarios. At the current stage of cocoa breeding, selection for adaptation to planting density is a higher priority than selection for yield efficiency.

Three different saffron strains (Crocus sativus, C. sativus var. ‘cashmerianus’ and C. cartwrightianus) were tested for two years in field experiments to study their red stigma yield and quality. The experiments were performed at a high-elevation (rainfed or irrigated) site and a coastal site in Lebanon. On average, the two C. sativus strains gave more flowers and stigma yield than C. cartwrightianus. The former was more productive in the more favourable environments, especially at the warmer coastal site, than the latter. C. sativus ‘cashmerianus’, which yielded better at the coastal site in 2004 and gave a stronger colour strength and aroma, appeared to be the better choice for the area. Mean yield at the coastal site was twice that at the non-irrigated high-elevation site. On average, saffron produced at the coastal site had more colouring strength and bitterness than that produced at the high-elevation site. Nevertheless, viable commercial saffron production may still be possible in the semi-arid, high-elevation Bekaa Valley if irrigation can be provided.

Cocoyam (Xanthosoma spp.) is the most important export crop of all the root and tuber crops grown in Nicaragua. Despite its importance, the total planted area and yield have significantly decreased during the past few years, a decrease that is mainly due to diseases that are disseminated through the planting material. In this study virus-free (NI) and virus-infected (I) in vitro plants from three genotypes were established in a non-traditional production area. The aim was to evaluate their agronomic performance, and to study the re-infection of dasheen mosaic virus (DsMV) and its effect on yield. Repeated measurements of morphological traits were made during the experimental period. The height of the plants, the diameter of the pseudo-stem and the leaf area increased continuously up to 217 days after planting after which the growth curves declined. The genotypes differed in all yield components, except in yield per plant. Regardless of genotype, the NI plants produced a larger number of cormels that were heavier and longer than the cormels produced by I plants. This resulted in a higher yield from NI plants (18.2 t ha−1) compared with I plants (13.6 t ha−1). Seven months after planting between 60 and 90 % of the NI plants, depending on genotype, were infected with DsMV. Aphis gossypii was the only aphid observed in the field trial and is therefore most probably the vector responsible for the transmission of the virus.

Horsegram (Macrotyloma uniflorum) is sown late in the rainy season by resource-poor farmers in marginal, drought-prone areas of India. Sowing and early crop growth coincide with declining rainfall so crop establishment is often poor and yields are low. Horsegram is a ‘neglected’ crop and farmers' choice of varieties to grow is limited to poor-yielding landraces or to modern varieties for which access to seed is limited. In on-station trials, we compared the yield and relative merits over three years of seven varieties potentially suited to conditions in Jharkhand State and sown with or without priming by soaking seeds in water prior to sowing. Yield stability of the varieties was tested using data from these and five additional trials. Farmers' opinions were recorded during six participatory exercises based on farmers' trials, and their rankings were compared with those from the on-station evaluations. Significant variety × year interactions were observed and yield was generally inversely proportional to drought. Both linear and non-linear genotype × environment interactions were significant for all varieties. Variety BK 1 was the most desirable with stable yields across environments and a higher overall mean grain yield. Variety VLG 1 was unresponsive to more favourable environments but yielded more in the low yielding environments. However, it was the earliest to mature and was identified as a promising variety, which farmers preferred for its grain and brown seeds. This could be used to diversify farming systems with additional options for farmers. Although soaking seeds for 12 h was most effective in increasing germination in an in vitro study, soaking for 8 h before sowing increased emergence and final stand by 11 % and grain yield by 10 % averaged over all varieties and years. Soaking advanced flowering by 1.3 d and maturity by 1.9 d. All varieties responded positively to soaking and did so in all three years, although the response was stronger in drier years.

The practice and management of subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) on heavy clay soils is poorly understood. Over-irrigation can lead to excessive runoff and drainage, with associated negative environmental consequences. Experiments were conducted in 2001/2002 and 2002/2003 on cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) in a Vertisol in Australia to evaluate the effect of SDI at various application rates on cotton yield and quality, and the results were compared with those for conventional furrow irrigation. Irrigating with SDI that supplied 50% or 75% of daily crop evapotranspiration (ETc) maintained a dry upper soil profile throughout the season. SDI at 50% ETc could potentially capture 250mm more rain during the season compared to SDI 90% ETc, and even more than furrow irrigation. However, supplying only 50% ETc with SDI hastened the maturity of the crop by on average 25 days compared with furrow irrigation and higher SDI rates, fewer bolls were set and yields were lower than in the other treatments. Nevertheless, a shorter season, if yield sacrifice is acceptable, favours logistics when integrating winter crops with summer cotton. It also reduces the number and cost of pesticide sprays and irrigation. Yield plateaued when 75% or more of daily ETc was supplied by SDI. The two drier treatments (SDI at 50% and 75% of ETc) had consistently higher water use efficiencies (WUE) for lint production compared with those of the two wetter SDI treatments (SDI at 90% and 105/120% ETc). All SDI treatments were also more efficient in the first year in the use of water for lint production than was furrow irrigation, but improved irrigation management in the form of faster irrigation and reduction of tail water in the second year obviated the advantage of SDI. Irrigation of cotton with SDI at 75% ETc offered significant benefits in terms of saved irrigation water over wetter SDI treatments, resulted in the highest average WUE for lint production over the two years, and reduced drainage and runoff compared with higher SDI rates and furrow irrigation.

Over an eight-year period, harvesting methods based on simple mechanical aids (blade and shear) were evaluated against hand harvesting on mature morphologically contrasting tea clones in Southern Tanzania. The effects of shear step height (5–32 mm) and the harvest interval (1.8–4.2 phyllochrons) were also examined. Except in the year following pruning, large annual yields (5.7–7.9 t dry tea ha−1) were obtained by hand harvesting at intervals of two phyllochrons. For clones K35 (large shoots) and T207 (small shoots), the mean harvested shoot weights were equivalent to three unfurled leaves and a terminal bud. The proportions of broken shoots (40–48 %) and coarse material (4–6 %) were both relatively high. Using a blade resulted in similar yields to hand harvesting from K35 but larger yields from T207 (+13 %). The yield increase from clone T207 was associated with the harvest of more shoots and heavier shoots, smaller increases in canopy height, and a higher proportion (7–9 %) of coarse material compared to hand harvesting. On bushes, which had been harvested by hand for two years following pruning, using flat shears (no step) supported on the tea canopy resulted, over a three year period, in yields 8–14 % less than those obtained by hand harvesting and, for clone K35, a reduction in the leaf area index to below 5. The development of a larger leaf area index is made possible by adding a step to the shear. However, since annual yields were reduced by 40–50 kg ha−1 per mm increase in step height, the step should be the minimum necessary to maintain long-term bush productivity. As mean shoot weights following shear harvesting were about 13 % below those obtained by hand harvesting, there is scope, when using shears, to extend the harvest interval from 2 to 2.5 phyllochrons.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) may have a major role in phosphorus nutrition of crops in Lombok, where fertilizer use is low. As a start to understanding this role, AMF dynamics were monitored from the 1999 non-rice season to the end of the 1999/2000 rice season at 32 sites including dryland systems with no rice, upland rice and flooded systems with one or two rice crops per year in the rotation. Over all four systems, root colonization was greater in vertisol (22.3 % of roots) than in regosol (9.5 %) soil, possibly due to lower Bray-1 P content of the vertisol (6.2 v. 13.7 mg kg−1). Colonization was poor in flooded rice (3.1–5.1 %); at the same sampling times it was better in upland rice (10.6–13.4 %) and in non-rice crops growing in dryland systems (13.8–17.0 %). Therefore, the low colonization in flooded rice appeared to be the result of flooding, rather than the rice itself. Flooding also reduced transparent spore numbers, but sufficient inoculum appeared to survive flooding for plants in the following non-rice season to be well colonized (19–33 %) regardless of system. These non-flooded crops appear to replenish depleted AMF propagules.

Asynchrony between nitrogen (N) released by organic materials and N demand by the crop leads to low N use efficiency. Optimizing the time of application could increase the N recovery. A field experiment was designed to determine the effects of time of application of Gliricidia sepium prunings and of the addition of small doses of inorganic N fertilizer on N recovery and yield of maize. Six split applications of gliricidia prunings (in October, December and February) were compared. The prunings were incorporated into the soil while fresh. The application in October was done four weeks before planting the maize. Higher N uptake and maize yields were obtained when gliricidia prunings were applied in October than when applied in December and February. The corresponding substitution values were 0.66, 0.32 and 0.20. Split applications of prunings prolonged mineral N availability in the soil until March but did not increase N uptake and maize grain yield compared to a sole application in October. Combinations of gliricidia prunings and inorganic fertilizer increased N uptake and maize yield over prunings alone but the effect was only additive. We concluded that application of gliricidia prunings in October was more efficient than application in December and February.

Genotype × environment interaction plays an important role in the identification of genotypes with high and stable yields. The environmental components of such interaction can be attributed to location (spatial) and year (temporal) factors. This study considers a specific aspect of the location factor, i.e. that locations not geographically close to each other are likely to vary in terms of the conditions that determine the effect of the year factor, even during the same calendar year. In these situations, the year effects are considered to be random variables within each location. This study addresses the question of whether genotype × location interactions are consistent (or repeatable) over time: a question which is crucial when defining the target environments in a plant breeding programme and when deciding the optimum environment for selection. Using three sets of data from field experiments, various computation methods were developed to estimate variance components; the methods and estimates are presented here. Using the bootstrapping procedure to sample one year from each location within a given calendar year, we obtained bootstrap replicated values of genotype × location interaction and their summary statistics, including the coefficient of variation (CV). We suggest that the CV can be used to measure the repeatability of genotype × location interactions. A Genstat program that can be used to perform the required computations is available from the authors upon request.

The effects of radiation conditions and nitrogen (N) availability on triticale were investigated. The relationship between shading (S) and N supply and their effect on the industrial use of triticale flour were studied. Incident radiation/shade conditions affected all the parameters measured. Nitrogen supply influenced yield, protein content, sodium dodecyl sulphate-sedimentation index (SDS-SI), alkaline water retention capacity (AWRC), cookie factor and diameter of four cookies (D4C). The proportion of proteins of high molecular weight was increased with nitrogen supply and pre-anthesis shade, while post-anthesis shade increased proteins of lower molecular weight. The interaction between variety and N supply was significant for yield, SDS-SI and AWRC. Only yield and specific weight were affected by N × S interaction. Significant effects of the interaction of variety, N supply and shade conditions were observed for specific weight.

Water is perhaps the most important single factor that limits crop production in the semi-arid northeast of Nigeria. A four-year field experiment was therefore initiated in 1999 to evaluate the influence of land configuration practices with or without wood-shavings mulch on water conservation, yield and water use efficiency (WUE) of sorghum. The experimental treatments consisted of flat bed (FB), open ridging (OR), tied ridging (TR), FB + mulch (FBM), OR + mulch (ORM), and TR + mulch (TRM). Ridge heights were 15 to 20 cm and furrows were left open (for OR and ORM) or tied (for TR and TRM). Wood-shavings mulch was used at the rate of 5 t ha−1 in 1999, but this was increased to 10 t ha−1 in subsequent years to ensure adequate soil coverage. Differences in soil water storage at various sampling dates were significant only in some cases in each year, but trends were towards greater soil water storage in the mulched treatments than in the non-mulched treatments, irrespective of tillage method. Growth parameters (plant height and leaf area index) indicated significant differences between treatments on only some measurement dates in each year. Sorghum water use varied significantly between years and treatments. Seasonal water use was greater with FBM, ORM and TRM than with the FB treatment in all cropping seasons. Averaged over the four-year period, mean increases in grain yield relative to the FB treatment were 16 % for OR, 25 % for TR, 77 % for FBM, 50 % for ORM and 57 % for TRM. Pooled across the experimental years, the WUE (ET) of FB, OR, TR, FBM, ORM and TRM were 1.95, 2.12, 2.13, 2.74, 2.36 and 2.48 kg ha−1 mm−1 respectively. The corresponding WUE(R) values for these treatments were 1.26, 1.46, 1.56, 2.22, 1.88 and 1.97 kg ha−1 mm−1 respectively. It is concluded that combining the practice of flat bed cultivation with mulching may eliminate the need for ridging in increasing the productivity of sorghum grain in semi-arid northeast Nigeria.

The response of germination and early seedling growth to levels of salinity (0, 50, 100, 150, 200 and 250 mM NaCl) were examined in single seed lots of ten modern rice genotypes. Unaged and deteriorated rice seeds were germinated in rolled paper towels and in Petri dishes. Initial seed quality, final germination, germination rate and early seedling growth were assessed. The samples of the rice genotypes differed in their initial seed quality (measured in terms of Ki). The effect of deterioration varied depending upon the initial seed quality and the severity of the treatment imposed. Ageing (using the technique of controlled deterioration, CD) for up to 24 h had no effect on final germination levels. Although CD for 30 h only reduced final germination slightly, ageing for 36 or 48 h reduced it greatly. Controlled deterioration for 36 h or longer reduced the final length and the rate of extension of both the plumule and radicle. Combining information about germination in salt solution with that about seed quality enabled a distinction to be made between varieties which performed poorly because they were genetically salt-susceptible from those which germinated poorly due to poor seed quality. It is argued that the seed vigour of seed lots used in genotype evaluation should be assessed in order to avoid discarding potentially useful genotypes because of poor physiological seed quality.

Maize production in Malawi is limited by high costs and sub-optimal use of chemical fertilizers under continuous cultivation. A long-term gliricidia/maize trial was undertaken on a Ferric Lixisol from 1991/92 to 2001/02. The purpose of the study was to assess the performance of a gliricidia/maize intercropping system as a low-input soil fertility replenishment option in southern Malawi. The experiment was a 2 × 3 × 3 factorial design with three replications. Treatments included two maize cropping systems (with and without gliricidia trees), and three rates of inorganic N fertilizer (0, 24 and 48 N kg ha−1 representing 0, 25 and 50% of the national recommended N rate), and three rates of P fertilizer application (0, 20 and 40 P ha−1 representing 0, 50 and 100% of the recommended rate). No effect of P was detected on yield early in the trial, and this treatment was discontinued. The gliricidia pruning biomass did not decline after 10 years of intensive pruning, with strong correlation between tree biomass production and years after establishment (r = 0.91, p < 0.001). Application of gliricidia prunings increased maize yields by three times compared to the yield of unfertilized sole maize. Maize yield from the unfertilized gliricidia pruning treatment was superior to the yield from sole maize supplemented with a quarter or half the recommended N rate. The study confirmed that a gliricidia/maize intercropping system is a promising soil fertility replenishment option in southern Malawi and elsewhere in southern Africa.

In western Kenya, severe nutrient depletion, especially that of nitrogen and phosphorus, has drastically reduced crop yields over the past two to three decades. The potential effects of P application, with a single direct application of Minjingu phosphate rock (MPR) at 20, 40 and 60 kg P ha−1, and fallow biomass in terms of nutrient replenishment on maize and bean yields were investigated on N and P deficient soils of western Kenya for six cropping seasons (three years). The agro-forestry shrubs tested were one season (six months) Crotalaria grahamiana and Tephrosia vogelii followed by maize monocrop. These fallow species were intercropped with beans in the 2000 long rains season to provide a food benefit to the farmer. Soil samples were taken at the end of each season and analyzed for soil pH and extractable P. The results showed that soil available P increased significantly following application of MPR. Significant increases in bean yields were obtained when 60 kg P ha−1 as MPR were applied, and contributed to a 260 % increase above the control. Significant maize grain yield increases were obtained when MPR was applied alone or in combination with fallow biomass as compared with treatments with either no external nutrient addition (control) or with fallow biomass alone in all seasons. The 60 kg P ha −1 MPR rate gave the highest cumulative maize grain yields (9.6 t ha−1) over the five consecutive maize growing seasons, followed by 40 kg P ha−1 (8.8 t ha−1). The residual benefits of MPR at modest rates of application (60 kg P ha−1) were found to persist in the soil for only three cropping seasons. Thereafter, there was a steady decline in soil chemical properties (pH and available P), grain yields and net benefits. The study demonstrated the need for frequent additions of P especially in the fourth consecutive season to ensure sustained availability of P, favorable pH, and increased crop yields and net benefits on the nutrient-depleted soils of western Kenya.