Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jn8rn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-18T19:51:32.890Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Sub-optimal parenting is associated with schizotypic and anxiety personality traits in adulthood

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 October 2012

S.G. Giakoumaki ,
P. Roussos ,
C. Zouraraki ,
E. Spanoudakis ,
M. Mavrikaki ,
E.M. Tsapakis  and
P. Bitsios
S.G. Giakoumaki*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Crete, Rethymno, Crete, Greece Department of Psychiatry & Behavioural Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
P. Roussos
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry & Behavioural Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, Crete, Greece Department of Psychiatry, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York10029, USA
C. Zouraraki
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry & Behavioural Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
E. Spanoudakis
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry & Behavioural Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
M. Mavrikaki
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Crete, Rethymno, Crete, Greece
E.M. Tsapakis
Affiliation:
Section of Neurobiology of Psychosis, Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College, London, UK Aghios Charalambos Mental Health Clinic, Crete, Greece
P. Bitsios
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry & Behavioural Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
*
⁎Corresponding author. Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Crete, Rethymno 74100, Crete, Greece. Tel.: +30 28310 77541; fax: +30 28310 77579. E-mail address: [email protected] (S.G. Giakoumaki).
Get access

Abstract

Part of the variation in personality characteristics has been attributed to the child–parent interaction and sub-optimal parenting has been associated with psychiatric morbidity. In the present study, an extensive battery of personality scales (Trait Anxiety Inventory, Behavioural Inhibition/Activation System questionnaire, Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-Revised, Temperament and Character Inventory, Schizotypal Traits Questionnaire, Toronto Alexithymia Scale) and the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) were administered in 324 adult healthy males to elucidate the effects of parenting on personality configuration. Personality variables were analysed using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and the factors “Schizotypy”, “Anxiety”, “Behavioural activation”, “Novelty seeking” and “Reward dependence” were extracted. Associations between personality factors with PBI “care” and “overprotection” scores were examined with regression analyses. Subjects were divided into “parental style” groups and personality factors were subjected to categorical analyses. “Schizotypy” and “Anxiety” were significantly predicted by high maternal overprotection and low paternal care. In addition, the Affectionless control group (low care/high overprotection) had higher “Schizotypy” and “Anxiety” compared with the Optimal Parenting group (high care/low overprotection). These results further validate sub-optimal parenting as an important environmental exposure and extend our understanding on the mechanisms by which it increases risk for psychiatric morbidity.

Keywords

Schizophrenia and psychosisSchizotypyAnxietyPersonalityParental Bonding Instrument
Type
Original article
Information
European Psychiatry , Volume 28 , Issue 4 , May 2013 , pp. 254 - 260
Copyright
Copyright © European Psychiatric Association 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Bagby, R.M.Parker, J.D.A.Taylor, G.J.The twenty-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale-I. Item selection and cross-validation of the factor structure. J Psychosom Res 1994;38:23–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brody, E.B.Can mother-infant interaction produce vulnerability to schizophrenia?. J Nerv Ment Dis 1981;169:72–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Byrne, C.P.Velamoor, V.R.Cernovsky, Z.Z.Cortese, L.Loszty, N.S.A comparison of borderline and schizophrenic patients for childhood events and parent child relationships. Can J Psychiatry 1990;35:590–595.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carver, C.S.White, T.L.Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: the BIS/BAS scales. J Pers Soc Psychol 1994;67:319–333.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Claridge, G.Theoretical background issues. In: Claridge, G., editors. Schizotypy: implications for illness and health. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1997. p. 3–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Claridge, G.Broks, P.Schizotypy and hemisphere function–I: theoretical considerations and the measurement of schizotypy. Person Individ Diff 1984;5:633–648.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Claridge, G.S.Hewitt, J.K.A biometrical study of schizotypy in a normal population. Person Individ Diff 1987;8:303–312.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cloninger, C.R.Przybeck, T.R.Svrakic, D.M.Wetzel, R.D.The temperament and character inventory (TCI): a guide to its development and use. Center for psychobiology of personality St Louis, Missouri: Washington University; 1994.Google Scholar
Cloninger, C.R.Svrakic, D.M.Pszybeck, T.R.A psychobiological model of temperament and character. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993;50:975–990.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Costa, P.T. Jr.McCrae, R.R.Revised NEO personality inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO five factor inventory (NEO-FFI): professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources; 1992.Google Scholar
Duggan, C.Sham, P.Minne, C.Lee, A.Murray, R.Quality of parenting and vulnerability to depression: results from a family study. Psychol Med 1998;28:185–191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ebstein, R.P.The molecular genetic architecture of human personality: beyond self-report questionnaires. Mol Psychiatry 2006;11:427–445.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eysenck, H.J.Eysenck, S.B.J.Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-Revised (EPQ-R). UK: Hodder & Stoughton; 1991.Google Scholar
Eysenck, S.B.G.Eysenck, H.J.Barrett, P.A revised version of the psychoticism scale. Pers Individ Diff 1985;6:21–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Favaretto, E.Torresani, S.Parenting bonding as a predictive factor for the development of adult psychiatric disorders. Epidemiol Psychiatr Soc 1997;6:124–138.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallagher, B.Cartwright-Hatton, S.The relationship between parenting factors and trait anxiety: mediating role of cognitive errors and metacognition. J Anxiety Disord 2008;22:722–733.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Green, E.K.Grozeva, D.Jones, I.Jones, L.Kirov, G.Caesar, S.et al.The bipolar disorder risk allele at CACNA1C also confers risk of recurrent major depression and of schizophrenia. Mol Psychiatry 2010;15:1016–1022.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunthert, K.C.Cohen, L.H.Armeli, S.The role of neuroticism in daily stress and coping. J Pers Soc Psychol 1999;77:1087–1100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guttman, H.A.The epigenesis of the family system as a context for individual development. Fam Process 2002;41:533–545.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Handa, H.Ito, A.Tsuda, H.Ohsawa, I.Ogawa, T.Low level of parental bonding might be a risk factor among women with prolonged depression: a preliminary investigation. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2009;63:721–729.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Helgeland, M.I.Torgersen, S.Maternal representations of patients with schizophrenia as measured with the parental bonding instrument. Scand J Psychol 1997;38:39–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hettema, J.M.Neale, M.C.Myers, J.M.Prescott, C.A.Kendler, K.S.A population-based twin study of the relationship between neuroticism and internalizing disorders. Am J Psychiatry 2006;163:857–864.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jackson, M.Claridge, G.Reliability and validity of a psychotic traits questionnaire (STQ). Br J Clin Psychol 1991;30:311–323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jorm, A.F.Christensen, H.Henderson, A.S.Jacomb, P.A.Korten, A.E.Rodgers, B.Using the BIS/BAS scales to measure behavioural inhibition and behavioral activation: factor structure, validity, and norms in a large community sample. Pers Individ Diff 1999;26:49–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lahey, B.B.Public health significance of neuroticism. Am Psychol 2009;64:241–256.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Larsen, R.J.Ketelaar, T.Personality and susceptibility to positive and negative emotional states. J Pers Soc Psychol 1991;61:132–140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewandowski, K.E.Barrantes-Vidal, N.Nelson-Gray, R.O.Clancy, C.Kepley, H.O.Kwapil, T.R.Anxiety and depression symptoms in psychometrically identified schizotypy. Schizophr Res 2006;83:225–235.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lichtenstein, P.Yip, B.H.Björk, C.Pawitan, Y.Cannon, T.D.Sullivan, P.F.et al.Common genetic determinants of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder in Swedish families: a population-based study. Lancet 2009;373:234–239.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacKinnon, A.J.Henderson, A.S.Andrews, G.The parental bonding instrument: a measure of perceived or actual parental behavior. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1991;83:153–159.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCrae, R.R.Costa, P.T. Jr.The structure of interpersonal traits: Wiggins's circumplex and the five factor model. J Pers Soc Psychol 1989;56:586–595.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGuffin, P.Rijsdijk, F.Andrew, M.Sham, P.Katz, R.Cardno, A.The heritability of bipolar affective disorder and the genetic relationship to unipolar depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003;60:497–502.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murphy, E.Wickramaratne, P.Weissman, M.The stability of parental bonding reports: a 20-year follow-up. J Affect Disord 2010;125:307–315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Onstad, S.Skre, I.Torgersen, N.Kringlen, E.Parental representation in twins discordant for schizophrenia. Psychol Med 1993;23:335–340.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Onstad, S.Skre, I.Torgersen, S.Kringlen, E.Family interaction: parental representation in schizophrenic patients. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1994;Suppl. 384:67–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Otani, K.Suzuki, A.Oshino, S.Ishii, G.Matsumoto, Y.Effects of the “affectionless control” parenting style on personality traits in healthy subjects. Psychiatry Res 2009;165:181–186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parker, G.Validating an experiential measure of parental style: the use of a twin sample. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1986;73:22–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parker, G.Johnston, O.Hayward, L.Prediction of schizophrenic relapse using the parental bonding instrument. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 1988;22:283–292.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parker, G.Lipscombe, P.Influences on maternal overprotection. Br J Psychiatry 1981;138:303–311.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parker, G.Mater, R.Predicting schizophrenic relapse: a comparison of two measures. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 1986;20:82–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parker, G.Tupling, H.Brown, L.B.Parental bonding instrument. Br J Med Psychol 1979;52:1–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parker, J.G.Fairley, M.Greenwood, J.Jurd, S.Silove, D.Parental representation of schizophrenics and their association with onset and course of schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 1982;141:573–581.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rankin, P.Bentall, R.Hill, J.Kinderman, P.Perceived relationships with parents and paranoid delusions: comparisons of currently ill, remitted and normal participants. Psychopathology 2005;38:16–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reti, I.M.Samuels, J.F.Eaton, W.W.Bienvenu, O.J. IIICosta, P.T. Jr.Nestadt, G.Influences of parenting on normal personality traits. Psychiatry Res 2002;111:55–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roelofs, J.Huibers, M.Peeters, F.Arntz, A.van Os, J.Rumination and worrying as possible mediators in the relation between neuroticism and symptoms of depression and anxiety in clinically depressed individuals. Behav Res Ther 2008;46:1283–1289.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roussos, P.Giakoumaki, S.G.Adamaki, E.Bitsios, P.The influence of schizophrenia-related neuregulin-1 polymorphisms on sensorimotor gating in healthy males. Biol Psychiatry 2011;69:479–486.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roussos, P.Giakoumaki, S.G.Adamaki, E.Georgakopoulos, A.Robakis, N.K.Bitsios, P.The association of schizophrenia risk d-amino acid oxidase polymorphisms with sensorimotor gating, working memory and personality in healthy males. Neuropsychopharmacology 2011;36:1677–1688.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roussos, P.Giakoumaki, S.G.Georgakopoulos, A.Robakis, N.K.Bitsios, P.The CACNA1C and ANK3 risk alleles impact on affective personality traits and startle reactivity but not on cognition or gating in healthy males. Bipolar Disord 2011;13:250–259.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sideridis, G.D.Kafetsios, K.Perceived parental bonding, fear of failure and stress during class presentations. Int J Behav Dev 2008;32:119–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sklar, P.Smoller, J.W.Fan, J.Ferreira, M.A.Perlis, R.H.Chambert, K.et al.Whole-genome association study of bipolar disorder. Mol Psychiatry 2008;13:558–569.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Someya, T.Kitamura, H.Uehara, T.Sakado, K.Kaiya, H.Tang, S.W.et al.Panic disorder and perceived parental rearing behavior investigated by the Japanese version of the EMBU scale. Depress Anxiety 2000;11:158–162.3.0.CO;2-4>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spielberger, C.D.Manual for the state-trait anxiety inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press; 1983.Google Scholar
Spielberger, D.D.Gorsuch, R.L.Lushene, R.E.State-Trait anxiety, inventory manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press; 1970.Google Scholar
Tait, L.Birchwood, M.Trower, P.Adapting to the challenge of psychosis: personal resilience and the use of sealing-over (avoidant) coping strategies. Br J Psychiatry 2004;185:410–415.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tsaousis, I.Taylor, G.Quilty, L.Georgiades, S.Stavrogiannopoulos, M.Bagby, R.M.Validation of a Greek adaptation of the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale. Compr Psychiatry 2010;51:443–448.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Warner, R.Atkinson, M.The relationship between schizophrenic patients’ perceptions of their parents and the course of their illness. Br J Psychiatry 1988;153:344–353.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watson, D.Clark, L.Carey, G.Positive and negative affectivity and their relation to anxiety and depressive disorders. J Abnorm Psychol 1998;97:346–353.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiborg, I.M.Dahl, A.A.The recollection of parental rearing styles in patients with panic disorder. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1997;96:58–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilhelm, K.Niven, H.Parker, G.Hadzi-Pavlovic, D.The stability of the parental bonding instrument over a 20-year period. Psychol Med 2005;35:387–393.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Willinger, U.Heiden, A.M.Meszaros, K.Formann, A.K.Aschauer, H.N.Maternal bonding behaviour in schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder, considering premorbid personality traits. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2002;36:663–668.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yoo, H.I.Kim, B.N.Shin, M.S.Cho, S.C.Hong, K.E.Parental attachment and its impact on the development of psychiatric manifestations in school-aged children. Psychopathology 2006;39:165–174.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yung, A.R.McGorry, P.D.McFarlane, C.A.Jackson, H.J.Patton, G.C.Rakkar, A.Monitoring and care of young people at incipient risk of psychosis. Schizophr Bull 1996;22:283–303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yung, A.R.Phillips, L.J.Yuen, H.P.Francey, S.M.McFarlane, C.A.Hallgren, M.et al.Psychosis prediction: 12-month follow-up of a high-risk (“prodromal”) group. Schizophr Res 2003;60:21–32CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Submit a response

Comments

No Comments have been published for this article.