Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dk4vv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T21:31:23.282Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Nationalism and Communism as Foes and Friends

Comparing the Bolshevik and Chinese Revolutionaries

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 February 2020

Luyang Zhou
Luyang Zhou*
Affiliation:
Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University [[email protected]]
Get access

Abstract

Sociologists have noted that the ideological inclusiveness of nationalism varies. By comparing the Bolshevik and Chinese communist revolutionary elites, this article explains that such variation depends on the social strength of nationalism. A strong nationalism is (a) undergirded by a widely diffused national culture that can socialize most radical elites into the nation; (b) kept institutionally open to broad social strata so that lower classes can form a nationalist identity through participation; and (c) universally believed to be a geopolitically feasible anti-colonial revolution so that radical elites can think of engagement as worthwhile and necessary. Using a comparative biographical method probing both nationalists and communists, this article demonstrates that nationalism in Tsarist Russia was far weaker than in post-imperial China. In the former, the nationalist movement excluded communists while, in the latter, communists were incorporated. Therefore, the two communist parties had different understandings of Marxism.

Résumé

Les sociologues ont observé que le degré d’inclusion idéologique du nationalisme est susceptible de varier. En comparant les élites révolutionnaires bolcheviques et communistes chinoises, cet article explique que cette variation dépend de la force sociale du nationalisme. Un nationalisme fort est (a) sous-tendu par une culture nationale amplement diffusée qui socialise l’essentiel des élites radicales au sein de la nation ; (b) il est maintenu institutionnellement ouvert à de larges couches de la population afin que les classes inférieures puissent, à travers leur participation, se forger une identité nationaliste ; et (c) il est universellement considéré comme une révolution anti-coloniale réaliste, d’un point de vue géopolitique, afin que les élites radicales perçoivent leur engagement comme utile et nécessaire. En utilisant une approche biographique comparée des nationalistes et communistes, cet article montre que le nationalisme en Russie tsariste était beaucoup plus faible que dans la Chine post-impériale. Alors qu’en Russie, le mouvement nationaliste excluait les communistes, en Chine il les intégrait. Il ressort de l’analyse que les deux partis communistes avaient des conceptions différentes du marxisme.

Zusammenfassung

Wie Soziologen festgestellt haben, kann die ideologische Einbindung des Nationalismus sehr unterschiedlich verlaufen. Der Vergleich zwischen den revolutionären Eliten des Bolschewismus einerseits und des chinesischen Kommunismus anderseits verdeutlicht, dass die soziale Stärke des Nationalismus der Auslöser für derartige Schwankungen ist. Ein starker Nationalismus wird 1. durch eine weitverbreitete nationale Kultur gestützt, die den Großteil der radikalen Eliten innerhalb der Nation sozialisieren kann; 2. ist er institutionell für viele soziale Schichten offen, so dass Unterschichten durch ihre Teilhabe eine nationalistische Identität bilden können; und 3. versteht er sich grundsätzlich, aus geopolitischer Perspektive, als eine realistische, antikoloniale Revolution, die für radikale Eliten ein lohnendes und notwendiges Engagement darstellt. Die vergleichende biographische Methode zwischen Nationalisten und Kommunisten zeigt auf, dass der Nationalismus im zaristischen Russland viel schwächer ausgeprägt war als im postimperialen China. Während in Russland die nationalistische Bewegung die Kommunisten ausschloss, integrierte sie sie in China. Schlussendlich kann festgestellt werden, dass die beiden kommunistischen Parteien unterschiedliche Vorstellungen vom Marxismus hatten.

Keywords

RevolutionNationalismEmpireRussiaChinaRévolutionNationalismeEmpireRussieChineRevolutionNationalismusKaiserreichRusslandChina
Type
Varia
Information
European Journal of Sociology / Archives Européennes de Sociologie , Volume 60 , Issue 3 , December 2019 , pp. 313 - 350
Copyright
Copyright © A.E.S. 2020 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Agursky, Mikhail, 1987. The Third Rome: National Bolshevism in the USSR (Boulder Westview Press).Google Scholar
Akhmedov, Teimur, 1988. Nariman Narimanov (Baku, Iazychy).Google Scholar
Allen, Barbara C., 2015. Alexander Shlyapnikov, 1885-1937: Life of an Old Bolshevik (Leiden/Boston, Brill).Google Scholar
Anderson, Benedict, 1991. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (New York, Verso).Google Scholar
Andreev, Andrei Andreevich, 1985. Vospominaniia pis’ma [Memories in Letters] (Moscow, Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury).Google Scholar
Armstrong, Charles, 2017. “Korean Communism: From Soviet Occupation to Kim Family Regime,” in Pons, Silvio and Smith, Stephen A., eds, Cambridge History of Communism (Cambridge MA, Cambridge University Press: 441-466).10.1017/9781316459850.019CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartlová, Alena, 1995. “Political Power-Sharing in the Interwar Period,” in Musil, Jirâi, ed., The End of Czechoslovakia (Budapest, Central European University Press: 159-179).Google Scholar
Bianco, Lucian, 2018. Stalin and Mao: A Comparison of the Russian and Chinese Revolutions (Hong Kong, The Chinese University Press).10.2307/j.ctv2n7pjqCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blejwas, Stanislaus, 1984. Realism in Polish Politics: Warsaw Positivism and National Survival in Nineteenth Century Poland (New Haven, Yale Concilium on International and Area Studies; Columbus OH, Slavica Publishers).Google Scholar
Bo, Yibo, 2008. Qishi nian fendou yu sikao [My 70 Years’ Endeavoring and Thinking] (Beijing, Zhonggong dangshi chubanshe).Google Scholar
Bolobuev, P. V., 1993. Politicheskie deiateli rossii 1917: biograficheskii slovar’ (Moscow, Nauchnoe izdatel’stvo “bol’shaia rossiiskaia entsiklopediia”).Google Scholar
Branover, Herman, Berlin, Isaiah and Wagner, Zeev (eds), 1998. The Encyclopedia of Russian Jewry (Northvale NJ, Jason Aronson, Inc.).Google Scholar
Breuilly, John, 1994. Nationalism and the State (Chicago, University of Chicago Press).Google Scholar
Brubaker, Rogers, 1996. Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe (New York, Cambridge University Press).10.1017/CBO9780511558764CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brudny, Yitzhak, 1998. Reinventing Russia: Russian Nationalism and the Soviet State, 1953-1991 (Cambridge MA, Harvard University Press).Google Scholar
Bukharin, Nikolai and Preobrazhensky, Evgenii, (1922) 1966. The ABC of Communism: A Popular Explanation of the Program of the Communist Party of Russia (Ann Arbor, The University of Michigan Press)Google Scholar
Chen, Geng, 1982a. Chen Geng riji (Beijing, Zhanshi chubanshe).Google Scholar
Chen, Geng, 1982b. Chen Geng riji [A Diary of Chen Geng] (Beijing, Zhanshi chubanshe).Google Scholar
Clements, Barbara Evans, 1997. Bolshevik Women (Cambridge UK/New York NY, Cambridge University Press).Google Scholar
Cohen, Stephen, 1973. Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution: A Political Biography, 1888-1938 (New York, Alfred A. Knopf).Google Scholar
Connor, Walker, 1984. The National Question in Marxist-Leninist Theory and Strategy (Princeton NJ, Princeton University Press).Google Scholar
Connor, Walker, 2003. “Nationalism and Political Illegitimacy,” in Conversi, Daniele, Ethnonationalism in the Contemporary World: Walker Connor and the Study of Nationalism (London, Routledge: 24-49).Google Scholar
Dai, Maolin and Zhao, Xiaoguang, 2011. Gao Gang zhuan [A Biography of Gao Gang] (Xi’an, Shannxi renmin chubanshe).Google Scholar
Davidov, M., 1961. Aleksandr Dmitrievich Tsiurupa (Moscow, Gosudarstvennoe izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury).Google Scholar
Day, Richard, Gorinov, Mikhail and Preobrazhenskii, Evgenii, 2014. The Preobrazhensky Papers: Archival Documents and Materials (Leiden/Boston, Brill).Google Scholar
DCHTU, ed., 1979. Fufa qingong jianxue yundong shiliao [A Documentary History of the Work-Study Program in France] (Beijing, Beijing chubanshe).Google Scholar
Dunlop, John B., 1985. The New Russian Nationalism (New York, Praeger).Google Scholar
EBCES, ed., 1984. Sichuan dangshi renwu zhuan [Biographies of the CCP Elites from Sichuan] (Chengdu, Sichuansheng shehui kexueyuan chubanshe).Google Scholar
EBCE, ed., 2010. Zhonggong dangshi renwu zhuan [Biographies of the CCP Elites] (Beijing, Zhonggong dangshi chubanshe).Google Scholar
Eklof, Ben and Peterson, Nadezhda, 2010. “Laska i Poriadok: The Daily Life of the Rural School in Late Imperial Russia,” Russian Review, 69: 7-29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fateev, Petr and Korolev, V., 1988. O Emel’iane Iaroslavskom: vospominaniia, ocherki, stat’i (Moscow, Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury).Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, John, 1996. “The Nationless State: The Search for a Nation in Modern Chinese Nationalism,” in Unger, Jonathan and Barmé, Geremie, ed., Chinese Nationalism (Armonk NY, M.E. Sharpe).Google Scholar
Freeze, Gregory L., 1996. “Subversive Piety: Religion and the Political Crisis in Late Imperial Russia,” The Journal of Modern History, 68 (2): 308-350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frunze, Mikhail, 1977. Izbrannye proizvedeniia (Moscow, Voenizdat).Google Scholar
Fyson, Geroge, ed., 1995. Lenin’s Final Fight: Speeches and Writings, 1922-23 (New York, Pathfinder).Google Scholar
GARF (Gosudarstvennyi arkhiv rossisskoi federatsii [State Archive of Russian Federation]), 2000. Partiia soiuz 17 oktiabria: protokoly III sezda, konferentsii i zasedanii TsK, 1905-1915 (Moscow, ROSSPEN).Google Scholar
GASRF (Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Sluzhba Rossiiskoi Federatsii [State Archive Service Of Russian Federation]), 1998. Pravye partii: dokumenty i materialy (Moscow, ROSSPEN).Google Scholar
Gassenschmidt, Christoph, 1995. Jewish Liberal Politics in Tsarist Russia, 1900-1914: The Mobilization of Russian Jewry (New York, New York University Press).Google Scholar
Gatagova, L. C., Kosheleva, L. P. and Pogovaia, L. A., 2005. TsK RKP(b)-VKP(b) i natsional’nyi vopros (1918-1933 ) (Moscow, Posspen).Google Scholar
Gellner, Ernest, 1983. Nations and Nationalism (Ithaca, Cornell University Press).Google Scholar
Gellner, Ernest, 1997. Nationalism (Washington Square NY, New York University Press).Google Scholar
Gilberg, Trond, 1990. Nationalism and Communism in Romania: The Rise and Fall of Ceausescu’s Personal Dictatorship (Boulder, Westview Press).Google Scholar
Gleijeses, Piero, 2017. “The Cuban Revolution: The First Decade,” in Naimark, Norman, ed., Cambridge History of Communism (New York, Cambridge University Press: 364-387).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goriachev, Iu. V., 2005. Tsentral’nyi komitet: KPSS, VKP(b), RKP(b), RSDRP(b) (Moscow, Parad).Google Scholar
GPD [General Political Department], 2001. Jie fang jun zheng zhi gong zuo li shi zi liao xuan (Beijing, Jiefangjun chu ban she).Google Scholar
Granat, 1989. Deiateli SSSR i revoliutsionovo dvizheniia rossii: entsiklopedia granat (Moscow, Sov. entsiklopedia).Google Scholar
Graziosi, Andrea, 2017. “Communism, Nations and Nationalism,” in Pons, Silvio and Smith, Stephen A., eds, Cambridge History of Communism (Cambridge MA, Cambridge University Press: 449-474).Google Scholar
Grechko, Andrei, 1976, Sovetskaia voennaia entsiklopediia (Moscow, Voenizdat).Google Scholar
Hall, John A. and Malešević, Siniša eds, 2013. Nationalism and War (Cambridge UK, Cambridge University Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haugaard, Mark, 2002. “Nationalism and Modernity,” in Malesevic, Sinisa and Haugaard, Mark, eds, Making Sense of Collectivity: Ethnicity, Nationalism, and Globalization, (London/Sterling/Virginia, Pluto Press: 122-137).Google Scholar
Haupt, Georges and Marie, Jean Jacques, 1974. Makers of the Russian Revolution: Biographies of Bolshevik Leaders (Ithaca NY, Cornell University Press).Google Scholar
Hoover 1986. Mamiia Orakhelashveli: iz publitsisticheskovo naslediia (Tibilisi, Izdatel’stvo sabochta sakartvelo).Google Scholar
Huang, Erlu, 1978. “Huangxu,” in Jiang, Weiguo, ed., Guomin geming zhanshi kangzhan yuwu (Taibei, Liming wenhua shiye gongsi).Google Scholar
Huang, Xingtao, 2017. Chong su Zhonghua (Beijing, Beijing shifan daxue chubanshe).Google Scholar
Hutchinson, John, 2017. Nationalism and War (Oxford, Oxford University Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iaroslavskii, Emel’ian, 1939. Russko-iaponskaia voina i otnoshenie k nei bol’shevikov (Moscow, Gosudarstvennoe sotsial’no-ekonomicheskoe izdatel’stvo).Google Scholar
IMTsK Institut marksizma-leninizma pri TsK KPSS, 1960. M. I. Kalinin: Izbrannye proizvedeniia (Moscow, Gosudarstvennoe izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury).Google Scholar
Jiang, Jieshi, 1943. “Zhongguo zhi mingyun [China’s Destiny],” (Chongqing, Zhengzhong shuju).Google Scholar
Johnson, Chalmers, 1962. Peasant Nationalism and Communist Power: the Emergence of Revolutionary China (Stanford CA, Stanford University Press).Google Scholar
Kaganovich, Lasar’, 1996. Pamiatnye Zapiski Rabochego, Kommunista-Bol’shevika, Profsoiuznogo, Partiinogo i Sovetsko-Gosudarstvennogo Rabotnika (Moscow, VAGRIUS).Google Scholar
Karlip, Joshua M, 2013. The Tragedy of a Generation: The Rise and Fall of Jewish Nationalism in Eastern Europe (Cambridge MA, Harvard University Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Katznelson, Ira, 1986. “Artisans, Factory Workers, and the Formation of the French Working Class, 1789-1848,” in Katznelson, Ira and Zolberg, Aristide R., eds, Working-Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States, (Princeton NJ, Princeton University Press).Google Scholar
Kemp, Walter A, 1999. Nationalism and Communism in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union: A Basic Contradiction (London, Macmillan).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirilina, Anna, 2001. Neizvestnyi Kirov: mify i real’nost’ (St Petersburg, Izdatel’skii dom neva).Google Scholar
Kirov, S. M., 1944. Izbrannye stat’i i rech, Selected Essays and Speeches (Moscow, Gosudarstvennoe Izdatel’stvo Politicheskoi Literatury).Google Scholar
Kliuchnik, L. and Zav’ialov, B., 1970. G. I. Petrovskii (Moscow, Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury).Google Scholar
Kohut, Zenon, Nebesio, Bohdan and Yukevich, Myroslav, 2005. Historical Dictionary of Ukraine (Lanham, Md., Scarecrow Pres).Google Scholar
Kol’iak, T. N, 1981. Vlas Iakovlevich Chubar’: zhizni i deiatel’nost’ (Kiev, Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury).Google Scholar
Kramarov, G, 1974. Soldat revoliutsii: o Sergee Ivanoviche Guseve (Moscow, Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury).Google Scholar
Kubiak, M. I. and Usova, N. T., 1982. Leninskoi partii riadovoi: ocherki zhizni i deiatel’nosti N. A. Kubiak (Moscow, Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury).Google Scholar
Kuibyshev, Valerian, 1988. Valerian Vladimirovich Kuibyshev: biografiia (Moscow, Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury).Google Scholar
Kunicki, Mikolaj, 2012. “Heroism, Raison d’état, and National Communism: Red Nationalism in the Cinema of People’s Poland,” Contemporary European History, 21 (2): 235-256.10.1017/S0960777312000136CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuromiya, Hiroaki, 1998. Freedom and Terror in the Donbas: A Ukrainian-Russian Borderland, 1870s-1990s (Cambridge UK/ New York NY, Cambridge University Press).Google Scholar
Lenin, Vladimir Ilʹich, 1971. Critical Remarks on the National Question: The Right of Nations to Self-Determination (Moscow, Progress Publishers).Google Scholar
Levidova, S. M. and Salita, E. G., 1969. Elena Dmitrievna Stasova: biographicheskii ocherk (Leningrad, Lenizdat).Google Scholar
Li, Lie, 1996. He Long nianpu [A Chronicle of He Long] (Beijing, Renmin chubanshe).Google Scholar
Li, Xin, ed., 1978. Wu Yuzhang huiyilu [A Memoir of Wu Yuzhang] (Beijing, Zhongguo qingnian chubanshe).Google Scholar
Liao, Chengzhi, 1990. Liao Chengzhi wenji [Selected Works of Liao Chengzhi] (Beijing, Renmin Chubanshe).Google Scholar
Lieven, Dominic, 1983. Russia and the Origins of the First World War (New York, St. Martin’s Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lieven, Dominic, 2015. The End of Tsarist Russia: The March to World War I and Revolution (New York, Viking).Google Scholar
Lin, Boqu, 1984. Lin Boqu riji [A Diary of Lin Boqu] (Changsha, Hunan renmin chubanshe).Google Scholar
Lipset, Seymour Martin, 1972. The First New Nation: The United States in Historical Comparative Perspective (New York, W.W. Norton & Company, Inc).Google Scholar
Liu, Guoming, 2005. Guo min dang bai nian ren wu cong shu (A Biographical Encyclopedia of the KMTs of the Recent Century) (Beijing, tuan jie chu ban she).Google Scholar
Liu, Pingmei, 2005. Zhongguo tuopai dangshi: Xinmiao.Google Scholar
Liu, Xiaoyuan, 2004. Frontier passages: Ethnopolitics and the Rise of Chinese Communism, 1921-1945 (Washington DC, Woodrow Wilson Center Press).Google Scholar
Liu, Xiaoyuan, 2014. Recast All under Heaven: Revolution, War, Diplomacy, and Frontier China in the 20th Century (New York, Continuum).Google Scholar
Loginov, Vladlen, 2005. Vladimir Lenin (Moscow, Izdatel’stvo respublika).Google Scholar
Lohr, Eric, 2003. Nationalizing the Russian Empire: The Campaign against Enemy Aliens during World War I (Cambridge MA/London UK, Harvard University Press).Google Scholar
Lv, Zhengcao, 1987. Lv Zhengcao huiyilu [A Memoir of Lv Zhengcao] (Beijing, Jiefangjun chubanshe).Google Scholar
Malešević, Siniša, 2006. Identity as Ideology: Understanding Ethnicity and Nationalism (New York, Palgrave Macmillan).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mann, Michael, 2004. Fascists (Cambridge, New York Cambridge University Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mao, Zedong, 1993. Selected Works of Mao Zedong [Mao ze dong xuan ji] (Beijing, Ren min chu ban she).Google Scholar
Mao, Zedong, 2002. Mao Zedong zishu [An Autobiography of Mao Zedong] (Taibei, Taiwan shufang).Google Scholar
Martin, Terry, 2001. The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923-1939 (Ithaca, Cornell University Press).Google Scholar
Meyer, John W., Boli, John, Thomas, George M., and Ramirez, Francisco O., 1997. “World Society and the Nation-State,” American Journal of Sociology, 103 (1).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mikoyan, Anastas and Mikoyan, Sergo, 1988. The Path of Struggle (Madison CT, Sphinx Press).Google Scholar
Miller, Alexei, 2004. “The Empire and the Nation in the Imagination of Russian Nationalism,” in Miller, Alexei, ed., Imperial Rule (Budapest, Central European University Press: 9-26).Google Scholar
Minassian, Anahide Ter, 1996. “Nationalism and Socialism in the Armenian Revolutionary Movement (1897-1912),” in Suny, Ronald Grigor, ed., Transcaucasia, Nationalism and Social Change: Essays in the History of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia (Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press: 141-186).Google Scholar
Minoru, Kitamura, and Si-Yun, Lin, 2014. The Reluctant Combatant: Japan and the Second Sino-Japanese War (Lanham MD, University Press of America, Inc).Google Scholar
Montefiore, Simon Sebag, 2007. Young Stalin (London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson).Google Scholar
Motyl, Alexander J., 1980. The Turn to the Right: The Ideological Origins and Development of Ukrainian Nationalism, 1919-1929 (New York, Distributed by Columbia University Press).Google Scholar
NDU (National Defense University), 2007. Liu Bocheng zhuan [A Biography of Liu Bocheng] (Beijing, Dangdai zhongguo chubanshe).Google Scholar
Ordzhonikidze, Zinaida Gavrilovna, 1967. Put’ bol’shevika: ctranitsy iz zhizni G. K. Ordzhonikidze (Moscow, Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury).Google Scholar
Pauly, Matthew, 2014. Breaking the Tongue: Language, Education, and Power in Soviet Ukraine, 1923-1934 (Toronto, University of Toronto Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pavlov, Dmitrii, 1994. Protokoly tsentral’nogo komiteta konstitutsionno-demokraticheskoi partii (1917-18) (Moscow, Izdatel’stvo Progress-Akademiia).Google Scholar
PDRO (Party Document Research Office) 1979. Wusi qianhou Zhou Enlai tongzhi shiwenxuan [Selected Poems and Prose of Zhou Enlai around May 4th Movement] (Tianjin, Tianjin renmin chubanshe).Google Scholar
PDRO (Party Document Research Office), ed., 2000. Chen Yun nianpu [A Chronicle of Chen Yun] (Beijing, Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe).Google Scholar
PDRO (Party Document Research Office), 2003. Liu Shaoqi zishu [An Autobiography of Liu Shaoqi] (Beijing, Jiefangjun wenyi chubanshe).Google Scholar
PDRO (Party Document Research Office), ed., 2004. Ren Bishi nianpu [A Chronicle of Ren Bishi] (Beijing, Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe).Google Scholar
PDRO (Party Document Research Office), 2005. Xi Zhongxun zhuan [A Biography of Xi Zhongxun] (Beijing, Renmin chubanshe Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe).Google Scholar
PDRO (Party Document Research Office), 2012. Peng Zhen nianpu [A Chronicle of Pengzhen] (Beijing, Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe).Google Scholar
Peng, Dehuai, 2002. Peng Dehuai zishu [An Autobiography of Peng Dehuai] (Beijing, Jiefangjun wenyi chubanshe).Google Scholar
Persson, Gudrun, 2010. Learning from Foreign Wars: Russian Military Thinking 1859-1873 (West Midlands UK, Halion & Company Ltd).Google Scholar
Pesic, Vesna, 1996. “Serbian Nationalism and the Origins of the Yugoslav Crisis,” in Peaceworks No. 8 (Washington, United States Institute of Peace).Google Scholar
Petrescu, Dragos, 2009. “Building the Nation, Instrumentalizing Nationalism: Revisiting Romanian National-Communism, 1956-1989,” Nationalities Papers, 37 (4): 523-544CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petrovskiĭ-Shtern, ĭokhanan, 2009. Jews in the Russian Army, 1827-1917: Drafted into Modernity (Cambridge UK/New York, Cambridge University Press).Google Scholar
Pipes, Richard, 1955. “Max Weber and Russia,” World Politics, 7 (3): 371-401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pipes, Richard, 1963. Social Democracy and the St. Petersburg Labor Movement: 1885-1897 (Cambridge MA, Harvard University Press).Google Scholar
Plakans, Andrejs, 1981. “Latvians,” in Thaden, Edward C. and Haltzel, Michael H., Russification in the Baltic Provinces and Finland, 1855-1914 (Princeton NJ, Princeton University Press).Google Scholar
Pochebut, G. A., and Malkin, B. G., 1962. A. E. Badaev: depudat piterskikh rabochikh (Leningrad, Lenizdat).Google Scholar
Podgornyi, Igor’, 1966. V. P. Nogin (Leningrad, Lenizdat).Google Scholar
Porter, Cathy, 2013. Alexandra Kollontai, A Biography (London, Merlin Press).Google Scholar
Qiang, Xiaochu and Li, Li’an, 1990. Ma Mingfang zhuanlue (A Brief Biography of Ma Mingfang) (Xi’an, Shannxi renmin chubanshe (Shannxi People Press).Google Scholar
Quinn-Judge, Sophie, 2017. “The History of the Vietnamese Communist Party, 1941-75,” in Naimark, Norman, Pons, Silvio and Quinn-Judge, Sophie, Cambridge History of Communism (Cambridge MA, Cambridge University Press: 414-440).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rabinovitch, Simon, 2014. Jewish rights, National Rites Nationalism and Autonomy in Late Imperial and Revolutionary Russia (Stanford CA, Stanford University Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raun, Toivo U. and Plakans, Andrejs, 1990. “The Estonian and Latvian National Movements: An Assessment of Miroslav Hroch’s Model,” Journal of Baltic Studies, 21 (2): 131-144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rawson, Don C., 1995. Russian Rightists and the Revolution of 1905 (New York, Cambridge University Press).Google Scholar
Riga, Liliana, 2008. “The Ethnic Roots of Class Universalism: Rethinking the ‘Russian’ Revolutionary Elite,” American Journal of Sociology, 114 (3): 649-705.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Riga, Liliana, 2012. The Bolsheviks and The Russian Empire (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenberg, William G., 1974. Liberals in the Russian Revolution: The Constitutional Democratic Party, 1917-1921 (Princeton NJ, Princeton University Press).Google Scholar
Roszkowski, Wojciech and Kofman, Jan, 2008. Biographical Dictionary of Central and Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century (Armonk NY, M.E. Sharpe).Google Scholar
Rychlík, Jan, 1995. “From Autonomy to Federation, 1938-1968,” in Musil, Jirâi, ed., The End of Czechoslovakia (Budapest, Central European University Press: 180-200).Google Scholar
Sanetō, Keishū, 1983. Zhongguoren liuxue riben shi [A History of the Chinese Studying in Japan], translated by Tan Ruqian and Lin Qiyan (Beijing, Sanlian shudian).Google Scholar
Seton-Watson, Hugh, 1964. Nationalism and Communism: Essays, 1946-1963 (London, Methuen).Google Scholar
Setzekorn, Eric, 2015. “Jiang Baili: Frustrated Military Intellectual in Republican China,” Journal of Chinese Military History, 4 (2): 142-161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaumian, Stepan, 1978. Izbrannye proizvedeniiav dvukh tomakh (Moskva, Politizdat).Google Scholar
Shelokhaev, V. V., ed., 1996. Politicheskie partii Rossii, konets XIX--pervaiatretʹ XX veka: entsiklopediia (Moscow, ROSSPEN).Google Scholar
Shkandrij, Myroslav, 2015. Ukrainian Nationalism: Politics, Ideology, and Literature, 1929-1956 (New Haven, Yale University Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shlapentokh, Dmitry, 2007. Russia between East and West: Scholarly Debates on Eurasianism (Leiden/Boston, Brill).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sitao 2010. Liu Lantao shengping jishi [A Brief Biography of Liu Lantao] (Beijing, Zhongguo wenshi chubanshe).Google Scholar
Skriabin, Mikhail and Gavrilov, Leonard, 1987. Svetit’ mozhno-tol’ko skoraia: povest’ o Moisee Uritskom (Moscow, Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury).Google Scholar
Slezkine, Yuri, 1994. “The USSR as a Communal Apartment, or How a Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism,” Slavic Review, 53 (2): 414-452.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snyder, Timothy, 2006. “Ukrainians and Poles,” in Lieven, Dominic, ed., Cambridge History of Russia (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 163-183).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sohrabi, Nader, 2018. “Reluctant Nationalists, Imperial Nation-State, and Neo-Ottomanism: Turks, Albanians, and the Antinomies of the End of Empire,” Social Science History, 42 (4): 835-870.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stalin, Iosif, 2013. Stalin Trudy (1894-1904) (Moscow, Prometei Info).Google Scholar
Stanciu, Cezar, 2013. “Crisis Management in the Communist Bloc: Romania’s Policy towards the USSR in the Aftermath of the Prague Spring,” Cold War History, 13 (3): 353-372.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Subtelny, Orest, 2000. Ukraine: A History (Toronto Ont., University of Toronto Press).Google Scholar
Suny, Ronald Grigor, 1993. Looking toward Ararat: Armenia in Modern History. (Bloomington, Indiana University Press).Google Scholar
Szporluk, Roman, 1991. Communism and Nationalism: Karl Marx Versus Friedrich List (New York/Oxford, Oxford University Press).Google Scholar
Tang, Chunliang, 1999. Li Lisan quanzhuan [A Complete Biography of Li Lisan] (Hefei, Anhui renmin chubanshe).Google Scholar
Tilly, Charles, 1994. “States and Nationalism in Europe 1492-1992,” Theory and Society, 23: 131-146.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Todorova, Maria, 2015. “Is there weak nationalism and is it a useful category?,” Nations and Nationalism, 21 (4): 681-699.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tolz, Vera, 2015. “The Eurasians and Liberal Scholarship of the Late Imperial Period: Continuity and Change across the 1917 Divide,” in Bassin, Mark, Glebov, Sergey and Laruelle, Marlène, eds, Between Europe and Asia: The Origins, Theories, and Legacies of Russian Eurasianism (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, University of Pittsburgh Press).Google Scholar
Tuck, Jim, 1988. Engine of Mischief: An Analytical Biography of Karl Radek (New York, Greenwood Press).Google Scholar
Verboven, Koenraad, Carlier, Myriam and Dumolyn, Jan, 2007. “A Short Manual to the Art of Prosopography,” in Keats-Rohan, K. S. B., ed., Prosopography Approaches and Applications: A Handbook (Oxford, Unite for Prosopographical Research/ Linacre College, University of Oxford: 35-70).Google Scholar
Voroshilov, Kliment Efremovich, 1968. Rasskazy o zhizni (Moscow, Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury).Google Scholar
Wan, Yi, 1998. Wanyi jiangjun huiyilu [A Memoir of Lieutenant General Wan Yi] (Beijing, Zhonggong dangshi chubanshe).Google Scholar
Wang, Fanxi, (1973) 2015. “On the Causes of the CCP’s Victory and the Failure of the Chinese Trotskyists in the Third Chinese Revolution: A Reply to Peng Shuzhi,” in Benton, Gregor, ed., Prophets Unarmed: Chinese Trotskyists in Revolution, War, Jail, and the Return from Limbo (Leiden/Boston, Brill).Google Scholar
Wang, Hongyun, 2015. Nie rongzhen yu Fu Zuoyi (Beijing, Beiyue wenyi chubanshe).Google Scholar
Wang, Xiangli, 2006. Zhu De nianpu (Beijing, Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe).Google Scholar
Wimmer, Andreas, 2013. Waves of War: Nationalism, State Formation, and Ethnic Exclusion in the Modern World (Cambridge UK/New York, Cambridge University Press).Google Scholar
Wimmer, Andreas, 2018. Nation Building: Why Some Countries Come Together While Others Fall Apart (Princeton/Oxford, Princeton University Press).Google Scholar
Wortman, Richard S., 2006. Scenarios of Power Myth and Ceremony in Russian Monarchy from Peter the Great to the Abdication of Nicholas II (Princeton NJ, Princeton University Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wright, Donald, 2005. “‘That Vital Spark’: Japanese Patriotism, the Russian Officer Corps and the Lessons of the Russo-Japanese War,” in Steinberg, John W, ed., The Russo-Japanese War in Global Perspective: World War Zero (Leiden/Boston, Brill: 591-608).Google Scholar
Wright, Mary C., 1961. “A Review Article: The Pre-Revolutionary Intellectuals of China and Russia,” The China Quarterly, (6): 175-179.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wu, Baopu, Li, Zhiying and Zhu, Yupeng, 1997. Bo Gu wenxuan [Selected Essays of Bo Gu] (Beijing, Dangdai zhongguo chubanshe).Google Scholar
Xie, Bin, (1924) 2007. Minguo zhengdang shi (Beijing, Zhong hua shu ju).Google Scholar
Xinghuoliaoyuan, ed., 1995. Jiefangjun jiangling zhuan (Beijing, Jiefangjun chubanshe).Google Scholar
Xu, Xiangqian, 1987. Lishi de huigu [Historical Retrospect] (Beijing, Jiefangjun chubanshe).Google Scholar
Xu, Xiaohong, 2013. “Belonging Before Believing Group Ethos and Bloc Recruitment in the Making of Chinese Communism,” American Sociological Review, 78 (5): 773-796.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yang, Benjamin, 1998. Deng: A Political Biography (Armonk NY, M.E. Sharpe).Google Scholar
Yu, Minling, 1997. “Guojizhuyi zai mosike zhongshandaxue, 1925-30 [Internationalism at Moscow Zhongshan University],” zhongyang yanjiuyuan jindaishi yanjiusuo jikan, 26: 237-264.Google Scholar
Zake, Leva, 2007. “Inventing Culture and Nation: Intellectuals and Early Latvian Nationalism,” National Identities, 9 (4): 307-329.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, Jichun, 1990a. Zhang Jichun Wenxuan [Selected Works of Zhang Jichun] (Beijing, Renmin Chubanshe).Google Scholar
Zhang, Wentian, 1990b. Zhang Wentian xuanji [Selected Works of Zhang Wentian] (Beijing, Zhonggong dangshi ziliao chubanshe).Google Scholar
Zhao, Chao, 2012. Zhu De yu Wei Lihuang (Beijing, Huawen chubanshe).Google Scholar
Zhao, Dingxin, 2015. The Confucian-Legalist State: A New Theory of Chinese History (New York NY, Oxford University Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhao, Gang, 2006. “Reinventing China: Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century,” Modern China, 3 (2): 3-30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhou, Guoquan and Guo, Dehong, 1991. Wang Ming Nianpu (Hefei, Anhui renmin chubanshe).Google Scholar
Zhu, De, 1946. Zhu De zizhuan [An Autobiography of Zhu De] (Shanghai, Chongqing, Dadi Chubanshe).Google Scholar