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Whole of (coalition) government: Comparing Swedish and German experiences in Afghanistan
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 24 May 2021
Abstract
Whole-of-government (WOG) approaches have emerged as a blueprint for contemporary peace and state-building operations. Countries contributing civilian and military personnel to multinational interventions are persistently urged to improve coherence and enhance coordination between the ministries that form part of the national contingent. Despite a heated debate about what WOG should look like and how to achieve it, the causal mechanisms of WOG variance remains under-theorised. Based on 47 in-depth, semi-structured interviews, this study compares Swedish and German WOG approaches in the context of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF). I argue that coalition bargaining drove the fluctuation in the Swedish and German WOG models. Strategic culture was an antecedent condition. In both cases, COIN and the war on terror clashed with foundational elements of the Swedish and German strategic cultures, paving the way for a non-debate on WOG on the political arena. Finally, bureaucratic politics was an intervening condition that obstructed or enabled coherence, depending on the ambition of the incumbent coalition government to progress WOG. Overall, the results suggest that coalitions face limitations in implementing a WOG framework when the nature of the military engagement is highly disputed in national parliaments.
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- Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the British International Studies Association
References
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40 Bergen Bassett, ‘Factors Influencing Sweden's Changing Stance on Neutrality’ (Master's thesis, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, 2012), pp. 52–3.
41 Personal interviews S003, S006 (May 2014).
42 Anna Bergstrand and Kjell Engelbrekt, ‘To deploy or not to deploy a parliamentary army? German strategic culture and international military operations’, in Malena Britz (ed.), European Participation in International Operations: The Role of Strategic Culture (London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), pp. 49–50.
43 James D. Bindenagel and Philip A. Ackermann, ‘Germany's Troubled Strategic Culture Needs to Change’, Transatlantic Take (Berlin: The German Marshall Fund of the United States, October 2018), p. 2; Jørgen Staun, ‘The slow path towards “normality”: German strategic culture and the Holocaust’, Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies, 3:1 (2020), pp. 89, 94.
44 Dalgaard-Nielsen, ‘The test of strategic culture’, pp. 344–50; Jeffrey Lantis, ‘The moral imperative of force: The evolution of German strategic culture in Kosovo’, Comparative Strategy, 21:1 (2002), pp. 25–6.
45 Carolin Hilpert, Strategic Cultural Change and the Challenge for Security Policy (London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), p. 27; Wilfried Von Bredow, ‘Germany in Afghanistan: The pitfalls of peace-building in national and international perspective’, Res Militaris, 2:1 (autumn 2011), p. 6.
46 North, Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance.
47 See Sebastiaan Rietjens and Gerard Lucius, ‘Getting better at civil-military interaction’, in Lucius and Rietjens (eds), Effective Civil-Military Interaction in Peace Operations, pp. 11–28; Patrick and Brown, Greater Than the Sum of Its Parts?.
48 Here, I borrow from research on integrated missions. See Susanna P. Campbell and Michael Hartnett, ‘A framework for improved coordination: Lessons learned from the international development, peacekeeping, peacebuilding, humanitarian and conflict resolution communities’, Communities (2005), pp. 1–35.
49 Below and Belzile, ‘Comparing Whole of Government Approaches to Fragile States’, pp. 1–44.
50 Eronen, ‘PRT models in Afghanistan’, pp. 27–41.
51 Stephen Van Evera, Guide to Methods for Students of Political Science (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997), pp. 29–55.
52 Alexander L. George and Andrew Bennett, Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2005), pp. 19–21; Robert K. Yin, Case Study Research: Design and Methods (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2009), p. 9.
53 George and Bennett, Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences, pp. 206–07; Van Evera, Guide to Methods for Students of Political Science, pp. 71–2.
54 Yin, Case Study Research, p. 10. See also Desrosiers and Lagassé, ‘Canada and the bureaucratic politics of state fragility’; Magdalena Tham, Lindell Och, and Cecilia Hull, Jakten På Synergin: Erfarenheter Av Civil-Militär Samverkan I PRT Mazar-E Sharif (Stockholm: Swedish Defence Research Agency, 2011).
55 Yin, Case Study Research, pp. 50–4.
56 Hilpert, Strategic Cultural Change and the Challenge for Security Policy, p. 27; Stig A. Nohrstedt and Rune Ottosen, ‘Brothers in arms or peace? The media representation of Swedish and Norwegian defence and military co-operation’, Conflict & Communication Online, 9:2 (2010), p. 2.
57 Patrick Biernacki and Dan Waldorf, ‘Snowball sampling: Problems and techniques of chain referral sampling’, Sociological Methods & Research, 10:2 (1 November 1981), pp. 141–63.
58 Gunnar Åselius, ‘Swedish strategic culture after 1945’, Cooperation and Conflict: Journal of the Nordic International Studies Association, 40:1 (2005), pp. 26–7.
59 Bassett, ‘Factors Influencing Sweden's Changing Stance on Neutrality’, pp. 20–1; Tham, Och, and Hull, ‘Jakten på synergin’, p. 20.
60 Erik Noreen and Jan Angstrom, ‘A catch-all strategic narrative: target audiences and Swedish troop contributions to Afghanistan’, in Beatrice De Graaf, George Dimitriu, and Jens Ringsmose (eds), Strategic Narratives, Public Opinion and War: Winning Domestic Support for the Afghan War (New York, NY: Routledge, 2015), pp. 286–7.
61 Personal interviews S006, S011, S013 (May 2014).
62 Personal interviews S007, S011 (May 2014).
63 Olov Östberg, Per Johannissonn, and Per-Arne Persson, ‘Capability formation architecture for provincial reconstruction in Afghanistan’, in John Gotze and Anders Jenzen-Waud (eds), Systems, Vol. 3: Beyond Alignment; Applying Systems Thinking in Architecting Enterprises (London, UK: College Publications, 2013), p. 405; Personal interviews S006, S014 (May 2014).
64 Personal interview S006 (May 2014); Stefan Lagerlöf, Civil-Militära Relationer: Förutsättningar För Samverkan (Stockholm: Försvarshögskolan, 2011), p. 37, available at: {http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A418220&dswid=790} accessed 14 April 2019.
65 Personal interviews S007, S008 (May 2014).
66 Personal interviews S012, S016 (May 2014).
67 Personal interviews S006, S007, S008, S011, S013 (May 2014).
68 Personal interviews S001, S002, S004, S006, S007, S014, S017 (May 2014).
69 Personal interviews S006, S014 (May 2014); Riksdagen, ‘Fortsatt svenskt deltagande i en internationell styrka i Afghanistan’, Regeringens Proposition, 179 (Stockholm, 2001/02), p. 7, available at: {http://data.riksdagen.se/fil/c9587334-00dc-435f-aced-77833507001a} accessed 14 April 2019; Riksdagen, ‘Fortsatt svenskt deltagande i en internationell säkerhetsstyrka i Afghanistan’, Regeringens Proposition, 21 (Stockholm, 2002/03), p. 8, available at: {https://www.riksdagen.se/sv/dokument-lagar/dokument/proposition/fortsatt-svenskt-deltagande-i-en-internationell_GQ0321} accessed 14 April 2019.
70 Personal interviews S003, S016 (May 2014); Patrick and Brown, Greater Than the Sum of Its Parts?, p. 124.
71 Robert Egnell and Claes Nilsson, Svensk civil-militär samverkan för internationella insatser: från löftesrika koncept till konkret handling (Stockholm: Swedish Defence Research Agency (FOI), 2010), p. 16; Personal interviews S001, S003, S006, S007, S010, S012, S015, S016 (May 2014).
72 Personal interviews S001, S006, S009, S011, S017 (May 2014).
73 Personal interviews S001, S002, S003, S004, S005, S006, S007, S008, S010 (May 2014).
74 Riksdagen, ‘Fortsatt svenskt deltagande i en internationell säkerhetsstyrka i Afghanistan’, Regeringens Proposition, 71 (Stockholm, 2003/04), p. 7, available at: {https://www.riksdagen.se/sv/dokument-lagar/dokument/proposition/fortsatt-svenskt-deltagande-i-en-internationell_GR0371} accessed 14 April 2019.
75 Personal interviews S003, S004, S005, S006, S007, S009, S012, S014, S015, S016 (May 2014); Sara Bandstein, ‘Civil-militär samverkan i internationella insatser – en översikt av hur svenska aktörer samverkar på operativ och strategisk nivå’, FOI Memo 3309 (Stockholm: Swedish Defence Research Agency, 2010), pp. 9–12; Stefan Hedmark, Comprehensive approach eller pragmatic approach? En fallstudie om civil-militär samverkan vid PRT Mazar-E Sharif (Stockholm: Försvarshögskolan, 2009), p. 30.
76 Personal interview S001 (May 2014).
77 Tham, Och, and Hull, ‘Jakten på synergin’, p. 20.
78 Riksdagen, ‘Fortsatt svenskt deltagande i den internationella säkerhetsstyrkan i Afghanistan’, Regeringens Proposition, 83 (Stockholm, 2006/07), p. 10, available at: {http://www.regeringen.se/rattsdokument/proposition/2007/03/prop.-20060783/} accessed 14 April 2019.
79 Riksdagen, ‘Fortsatt svenskt deltagande i den internationella säkerhetsstyrkan i Afghanistan (ISAF)’, Regeringens Proposition, 69 (Stockholm, 2008/09), p. 11, available at: {http://www.regeringen.se/rattsdokument/proposition/2008/11/prop.-20080969/} accessed 14 April 2019.
80 Government Offices of Sweden, ‘Strategy for Development Cooperation with Afghanistan, July 2009–December 2013’ (Stockholm, 2009), pp. 7–8.
81 Personal interview S007 (May 2014).
82 Personal interviews S006, S016, S017 (May 2014).
83 Personal interview S001 (May 2014).
84 Personal interview S005, S008, S009, S010, S014 (May 2014).
85 Personal interviews S005, S011, S014 (May 2014); Sanna Svensson, ‘Lessons Still to Be Learned: Interoperability Between Swedish Authorities in Northern Afghanistan (BA thesis, University of Gothenburg, Sweden, 2011), p. 22; Tham, Och, and Hull, ‘Jakten på synergin’, p. 38; Helené Lackenbauer, Reflektioner Kring Civil-Militär Samverkan I Afghanistan (Stockholm: Swedish Defence Research Agency, 2011), p. 15.
86 Rod Nordland, ‘Security in Afghanistan is deteriorating, aid groups say’, The New York Times, available at: {https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/12/world/asia/12afghan.html} accessed 26 September 2020.
87 Personal interview S016 (May 2014); Radio Sweden, ‘Afghanistan Becomes an Election Issue’ (Stockholm: Radio Sweden, 2010), available at: {http://sverigesradio.se/sida/artikel.aspx?programid=2054&artikel=3892096} accessed 14 April 2019; David Stavrou, ‘The debate over Swedish troops in Afghanistan’, The Local (2010), available at: {http://www.thelocal.se/20101215/30858} accessed 14 April 2019.
88 Personal interviews S014, S017 (May 2014).
89 Personal interview S007 (May 2014).
90 Regeringskansliet, ‘Strategi för sveriges stöd till det internationella engagemanget i Afghanistan’ (Stockholm, 2010), pp. 12–26, available at: {http://www.regeringen.se/49b728/contentassets/6284170ece4f493cad8960d2369bbcf6/strategi-for-sveriges-stod-till-det-internationella-engagemanget-i-afghanistan} accessed 14 April 2019, Riksdagen, ‘Fortsatt svenskt deltagande i den internationella säkerhetsstyrkan i Afghanistan (ISAF)’, Regeringens Proposition, 29 (Stockholm, 2011/12), p. 20.
91 Government Offices of Sweden, ‘Revised Development Cooperation Strategy Afghanistan: January 2012–December 2014’ (Stockholm, 2012); Personal interview S014 (May 2014).
92 Government Offices of Sweden, ‘Strategy for Development Cooperation with Afghanistan’, pp. 8, 13; Government Offices of Sweden, ‘Revised Development Cooperation Strategy Afghanistan: January 2012–December 2014’, p. 3.
93 Personal interview S017 (June 2014).
94 Personal interviews S004, S005, S007, S008, S009, S010, S011, S013, S014, S016 (May 2014).
95 Personal interviews S005, S007, S016 (May 2014); Östberg, Johannissonn, and Persson, ‘Capability formation architecture for provincial reconstruction in Afghanistan’, p. 401.
96 Personal interviews G003 (June 2014); S004 (May 2014); G017 (October 2015).
97 Personal interviews S005, S007, S009, S010, S013 (May 2014).
98 Personal interviews S006, S013, S014 (May 2014); Tham, Och, and Hull, ‘Jakten på synergin’, pp. 35–6.
99 Personal interview S009 (May 2014).
100 Personal interview S007, S008 (May 2014).
101 Personal interview S013 (May 2014).
102 Personal interviews S001, S003, S007, S008, S010, S013, S014 (May 2014).
103 Personal interviews S006, S011 (May 2014).
104 Personal interview S014 (May 2014); Tham, Och, and Hull, ‘Jakten på synergin’, pp. 40–1.
105 Svensson, ‘Lessons Still to Be Learned’, p. 24.
106 Personal interview S014 (May 2014).
107 Personal interviews S004, S005 (May 2014).
108 Personal interviews G020, G022 (October 2015); Timo Behr, ‘Germany and regional Command-North: ISAF's weakest link?’, in Nik Hynek and Péter Marton (eds), Statebuilding in Afghanistan: Multinational Contributions to Reconstruction (London and New York: Routledge, 2011), pp. 42–64; Timo Noetzel and Thomas Rid, ‘Germany's options in Afghanistan’, Survival, 51:5 (2009), pp. 78–9.
109 Hilpert, Strategic Cultural Change and the Challenge for Security Policy, pp. 43–50, 193; Personal interview G030 (January 2016); Timo Noetzel, ‘The German politics of war: Kunduz and the war in Afghanistan’, International Affairs, 87:2 (2011), p. 403.
110 Personal interviews G003, G009, G012 (June 2014); G013 (July 2014); G016, G017, G020, G022, G028 (October 2015). See also Action Plan: Civilian Crisis Prevention, Conflict Resolution and Post-Conflict Peace-Building (Berlin: Bundesregierung. 2004).
111 Bundesministerium der Verteidigung, ‘Defence Policy Guidelines’ (Berlin, 2003), p. 18; Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development, ‘Sector Strategy for Crisis Prevention, Conflict Transformation and Peace-Building in German Development Cooperation’ (Berlin, 2005), p. 24.
112 Personal interview G017 (October 2015); Von Ansgar Graw, ‘Wieczorek-Zeul fordert strategiewechsel der USA’, WELT (2007), available at: {https://www.welt.de/politik/article1256355/Wieczorek-Zeul-fordert-Strategiewechsel-der-USA.html} accessed 14 April 2019.
113 Personal interview G014 (July 2014).
114 Personal interviews G014 (July 2014); G017, G018, G020, G021, G025, G028 (October 2015); G030 (January 2016).
115 Personal interviews G002, G003, G006, G007, G011, G014, G015 (July 2014).
116 Personal interviews G009, G014 (July 2014); G017, G022 (October 2015).
117 Wade Boese, ‘Germany, NATO Advance Missile Defenses’, Arms Control Association (2005), available at: {http://legacy.armscontrol.org/act/2005_06/Germany_NATO} accessed 1 January 2016.
118 Personal interviews G005 (June 2014); G030 (January 2016).
119 Personal interview G025 (October 2015).
120 Personal interviews G010, G014 (July 2014); G025 (October 2015).
121 Personal interviews G021 (October 2015); G024 (October 2015).
122 Personal interview G006 (June 2014).
123 Personal interviews G001, G005, G007, G009 (June 2014); G012, G014 (July 2014); G023, G024, G026, G027 (October 2015); G029 (November 2015); G030 (January 2016).
124 Personal interviews G005, G006, G007, G011, G012 (June 2014).
125 Personal interviews G010, G011, G012 (June 2014); G014 (July 2014); G021 (October 2015).
126 Behr, ‘Germany and regional Command-North’, pp. 42–64; Noetzel and Rid, ‘Germany's options in Afghanistan’, pp. 80–1.
127 Behr, ‘Germany and regional Command-North’, pp. 52–4; Noetzel and Rid, ‘Germany's options in Afghanistan’, pp. 80–1; Personal interview G026 (October 2015).
128 Hilpert, Strategic Cultural Change and the Challenge for Security Policy, pp. 93–193; Gareis, Sven, ‘Schlüssiges konzept oder schlagwort? Zu anspruch und praxis “Vernetzter Sicherheit” in Afghanistan’, Security and Peace, 28:4 (2010), p. 241Google Scholar; Noetzel, Timo and Schreer, Benjamin, ‘Counter – what? Germany and counter-insurgency in Afghanistan’, RUSI, 153:1 (2008), p. 45CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Personal interviews G011 (June 2014); G013 (July 2014).
129 Personal interview G019 (October 2015).
130 Federal Ministry of Defence, ‘White Paper on the Security of the Federal Republic of Germany and the Situation of the Bundeswehr’ (Berlin, 2006).
131 Svenja Post, Toward a Whole-of-Europe Approach: Organizing the European Union's and Member States Comprehensive Crisis Management (New York, NY: Springer VS, 2015), p. 289; Personal interviews G017, G022, G027 (October 2015).
132 Personal interview G017 (October 2015).
133 Personal interview G014 (July 2014).
134 Timo Noetzel, ‘Germany's small war in Afghanistan: Military learning amid politico-strategic inertia’, Contemporary Security Policy, 31:3 (2010), p. 500.
135 Personal interview G012, G013 (June 2014).
136 Personal interviews G014, G025, G026 (October 2015).
137 Personal interviews G012 (June 2014); G013, G014, G015 (July 2014); G025, G030 (October 2015).
138 Personal interview G013 (July 2014).
139 Noetzel, ‘The German politics of war’, pp. 405–07.
140 Michael Beetle, ‘Niebel setzt auf Vernetzte Sicherheit’, Stuttgarter-Zeitung (2011), available at: {http://www.stuttgarter-zeitung.de/inhalt.niebel-setzt-auf-vernetzte-sicherheit.bbbc9644-b4a3-4a14-b307-e8965d82272c.html} accessed 1 January 2016; Berlin Policy Journal, ‘Pure aid creates dependency: An interview with German Development Minister Dirk Niebel’, Berlin Policy Journal (2010), available at: {https://dgap.org/en/ip-journal/topics/“pure-aid-creates-dependency} accessed 1 January 2020; Personal interviews G003 (June 2014); G021, G017 (October 2015).
141 Personal interviews G003 (June 2014); G006 (June 2014); G014 (July 2014); G026 (October 2015).
142 Personal interview G026 (October 2015).
143 German Institute for Development Evaluation, ‘A Review of Evaluative Work of German Development Cooperation in Afghanistan’ (Bonn, 2014), pp. 4–9; Personal interviews G003 (June 2014); G017, G018, G021, G025, G027, G029 (October 2015).
144 Personal interviews G011 (July 2014); G017, G020, G021, G023, G024 (October 2015).
145 Personal interview G020, G025 (October 2015); G030 (January 2016).
146 Paul, Christopher, Clarke, Colin P., and Grill, Beth, Victory Has a Thousand Fathers: Sources of Success in Counterinsurgency (Santa Monica: RAND Corporation, 2010), pp. 31–82Google Scholar; Sexton, Renard, ‘Aid as a tool against insurgency: Evidence from contested and controlled territory in Afghanistan’, American Political Science Review, 110:4 (2016), pp. 731–49CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
147 See Eronen, ‘PRT models in Afghanistan’, p. 12; Olson and Gregorian, ‘Side by Side or Together?’, pp. 71, 92.
148 See, for example, Tham, Och, and Hull, Jakten På Synergin, pp. 39–40.
149 Egnell, ‘Civil–military coordination for operational effectiveness’, p. 271.
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151 Juliet Kaarbo, Coalition Politics and Cabinet Decision Making: A Comparative Analysis of Foreign Policy Choices (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2012), pp. 4–18.
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