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The violent inaction of the state and the camp as site of struggle: The perspectives of humanitarian actors in Moria Camp, Lesvos

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 May 2021

Eleanor Gordon Open the ORCID record for Eleanor Gordon [Opens in a new window]  and
Henrik Kjellmo Larsen
Eleanor Gordon*
Affiliation:
School of Social Sciences, Monash University, Victoria, Australia
Henrik Kjellmo Larsen
Affiliation:
School of Social Sciences, Monash University, Victoria, Australia
*
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
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Abstract

Until it was destroyed in a fire in September 2020, Moria camp on the island of Lesvos, Greece, was widely referred to as ‘a living hell’. This article investigates the causes and effects of poor camp conditions from the perspectives of humanitarian actors who have worked in the camp. We argue that poor conditions are intended to perform a deterrent function for both migrants and humanitarian actors. We also argue, however, that such camps are not simply static manifestations of violent borderwork, but complex, dynamic sites of struggle in which those who live and work there continuously make and remake the camp. This can be seen, for instance, in the ways in which humanitarian actors simultaneously fill the gap resulting from the violent inaction of the state while contributing to poor camp conditions, as a result of inter-agency competition and criticism, and the broader ways in which they challenge and reinforce the violent governance of migration.

Keywords

Migrant CampSecurityViolenceGovernanceHumanitarianism
Type
Research Article
Information
European Journal of International Security , Volume 6 , Issue 4 , November 2021 , pp. 418 - 438
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the British International Studies Association

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17 With the exception of Salam Aldeen who was willing to revoke his right to anonymity, and whose arrest is widely known and influential among volunteers: his specific identity and story was therefore considered to be important to our analysis of the impact of news of arrests.

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34 Polly Pallister-Wilkins, ‘Humanitarian borderwork’, in Cengiz Gunay and Nina Witjes (eds), Border Politics: Defining Spaces of Governance and Forms of Transgressions (New York: Springer 2017), pp. 85–103.

35 Foucault, ‘Society must be defended’, p. 241; Albahari, ‘Death and the Modern State’; Luca Mavelli, ‘Governing populations through the humanitarian government of refugees: Biopolitical care and racism in the European refugee crisis’, Review of International Studies, 43:5 (2017), pp. 809–32; Squire, ‘Governing migration through death’.

36 Mbembe, ‘Necropolitics’.

37 Ibid., p. 40.

38 Eric Reidy, ‘Winter warnings for Europe's largest refugee camp’, The New Humanitarian (2019), available at: {https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/news-feature/2019/11/14/Greece-Moria-winter-refugees?fbclid=IwAR2tim9arUXxydk41ubOhtsKMHPAB_cz1B1tkR0ZZ1O1GpqWG7d7Lj7bBz0} accessed on 18 October 2020.

39 Davies, Isakjee, and Dhesi, ‘Violent inaction’.

40 Mbembe, ‘Necropolitics’, p. 40.

41 Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (London: Penguin Books Ltd, 2017 [orig. pub. 1951]).

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47 BBC, ‘The worst refugee camp on Earth’.

48 UNHCR, ‘Refugees Speak of Dreadful Reality’; Chapman, ‘A doctor's story’; Iliadou, Evgenia, ‘Safe havens and prison islands: The politics of protection and deterrence of border crossers on Lesvos island’, Graduate Journal of Social Science, 15:1 (2019), p. 81Google Scholar; Refugee Trauma Initiative (RTI), ‘The Impact of COVID-19 on Refugees in Greece’ (2020), available at: {https://static1.squarespace.com/static/577646af893fc0b5001fbf21/t/5ef0bb675598594c56fcad77/1592835023114/2020-06_RTI_COVID19_REFUGEESGR.pdf} accessed 16 October 2020, p. 6.

49 Interview with Igor, male Norwegian volunteer in his mid-fifties, 26 November 2019.

50 Interview with Angus, male Swedish humanitarian professional and field manager in his mid-forties, 9 March 2020.

51 See European Union, Council of the European Union, EU-Turkey Statement (2016), available at: {https://www.refworld.org/docid/5857b3444.html} accessed 1 April 2021.

52 Interview with Anna, female Norwegian humanitarian professional in her late forties, 3 December 2019.

53 Pallister-Wilkins, ‘Humanitarian borderwork’.

54 Interview with Anna, female Norwegian humanitarian professional in her late forties, 8 June 2020; see also Chapman, ‘A doctor's story’; Apostolos Veizis, ‘Commentary: “Leave no one behind” and access to protection in the Greek Islands in the COVID-19 era’, International Migration, 58 (2020), pp. 264–6.

55 Chapman, ‘A doctor's story’; Harriet Grant, ‘UN calls for urgent evacuation of Lesbos refugee camp’, The Guardian (2020), available at: {https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/feb/11/un-calls-for-urgent-evacuation-of-lesbos-refugee-camp} accessed 18 October 2020.

56 BBC, ‘The worst refugee camp on Earth’; interview with Rita, female Norwegian volunteer in her early fifties, 5 December 2019.

57 Veizis, ‘Commentary: “Leave no one behind”’.

58 Chapman, ‘A doctor's story’.

59 Interview with Greta, female English volunteer and coordinator in her late forties, 30 January 2020.

60 Interview with Anna, female Norwegian humanitarian professional in her late forties, 3 December 2019.

61 Interview with Nina, female Norwegian volunteer in her late fifties, 26 November 2019.

62 Interview with Anna, female Norwegian humanitarian professional in her late forties, 3 December 2019; and see Refugee Support Aegean (RSA), ‘Moira Nightmare’ (2020), available at: {https://rsaegean.org/en/moria-nightmare/} accessed 18 October 2020; Willemine van de Wiel, Carla Castillo-Laborde, Francisco Urzúa, Michelle Fish, and Willem Scholte, ‘Mental health consequences of long-term stays in refugee camps: Preliminary evidence from Moria’, BMC International Health and Human Rights (2020), available at: {DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-18160/v1}.

63 Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF), ‘Overcrowded, Dangerous and Insufficient Access to Healthcare in Moria’ (2018), available at: {https://www.msf.org/greece-overcrowded-dangerous-and-insufficient-access-healthcare-moria} accessed 18 October 2020.

64 MSF, ‘Confronting the Mental Health Emergency on Samos and Lesvos: Why the Containment of Asylum Seekers on the Greek Islands Must End’ (2017), available at: {http://www.msf.org/sites/msf.org/files/2017_10_mental_health_greece_report_final_low.pdf} accessed 18 October 2020.

65 BBC, ‘The worst refugee camp on Earth’; ‘Lesbos migrant camp children “say they want to die”’ (2019), available at: {https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oL6HLA7JxoY} accessed 18 October 2020.

66 Interview with Phoebe, female Greek journalist in her mid-thirties, 5 June 2020.

67 See also HRW, ‘Greece: Camp Conditions Endanger Women, Girls’ (2019), available at: {https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/12/04/greece-camp-conditions-endanger-women-girls} accessed 18 October 2020; Iliadou, ‘Safe havens’; RSA, ‘Moira Nightmare’.

68 Joint interview with Ariel and Vidar, Norwegian volunteers (female and male) in their late seventies, 2 December 2019.

69 Interview with Igor, male Norwegian volunteer in his mid-fifties, 26 November 2019.

70 Jess Staufenberg, ‘Refugee crisis: Three people stabbed in riots amid “chaotic” and unsanitary conditions in Greek camps’, Independent (2016), available at: {https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/refugee-crisis-stabbed-riots-greek-camps-a6963481.html} accessed 18 October 2020; Andrea Vogt, ‘Teenager killed and two injured in stabbing at notorious Lesbos refugee camp’, The Telegraph (2019), available at: {https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/08/25/teenager-killed-two-injured-stabbing-notorious-lesbos-refugee/} accessed 18 October 2020.

71 Interview with Phoebe, female Greek journalist in her mid-thirties, 6 May 2020.

72 UNHCR, ‘Shelter’, available at: {https://www.unhcr.org/shelter.html} accessed 27 January 2020.

73 Davies, Isakjee, and Dhesi, ‘Violent inaction’, p. 1264.

74 Galtung, Johan, ‘Violence, peace, and peace research’, Journal of Peace Research, 6:3 (1969), pp. 167–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

75 Ibid., p. 1270.

76 Mbembe, ‘Necropolitics’, p. 40.

77 Isakjee, Arshad, Davies, Thom, Obradović-Wochnik, Jelena, and Augustová, Karolína, ‘Liberal violence and the racial borders of the European Union’, Antipode, 52:6 (2020), pp. 1751–73 (p. 1751)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

78 Davies, Isakjee, and Dhesi, ‘Violent inaction’.

79 Emma Laurie and Ian Shaw, ‘Violent conditions: The injustices of being’, Political Geography, 65 (2018), pp. 8–16; Isakjee et al., ‘Liberal violence’.

80 Katy Fallon and Harriet Grant, ‘Lesbos coronavirus case sparks fears for refugee camp’, The Guardian (2020), available at: {https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/mar/11/lesbos-coronavirus-case-sparks-fears-for-refugee-camp-moria} accessed 18 October 2020.

81 HRW, ‘Greece: Move Asylum Seekers, Migrants to Safety’ (2020), available at: {https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/03/24/greece-move-asylum-seekers-migrants-safety} accessed 18 October 2020; Veizis, ‘Commentary: “Leave no one behind”’.

82 Interview with Greta, female English volunteer and co-ordinator in her late forties, 6 August 2020; see also ‘Greece: Fire sweeps through refugee camp on virus lockdown’, CNBC (2020), available at: {https://www.cnbc.com/2020/09/09/greece-fire-sweeps-through-refugee-camp-on-virus-lockdown.html} accessed 17 October 2020.

83 Veizis, ‘Commentary: “Leave no one behind”’.

84 HRW, ‘Greece: Move Asylum Seekers, Migrants to Safety’; UNHCR, ‘Key Legal Considerations on Access to Territory for Persons in Need of International Protection in the Context of the COVID-19 Response’ (2020), available at: {https://www.refworld.org/docid/5e7132834.html} accessed 17 October 2020.

85 Veizis, ‘Commentary: “Leave no one behind”’.

86 Fallon and Grant, ‘Lesbos coronavirus case’.

87 Interview with Nina, female Norwegian volunteer in her late fifties, 26 November 2019.

88 Sarah Souli, ‘Greek island refugee camps face coronavirus “disaster”, aid groups warn’, The New Humanitarian (2020), available at: {https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/news/2020/03/27/greece-island-refugee-camps-coronavirus} accessed 17 October 2020; RTI, ‘The Impact of COVID-19’.

89 Veizis, ‘Commentary: “Leave No One Behind”’.

90 Souli, ‘Greek island refugee camps face coronavirus “disaster’”; Veizis, ‘Commentary: “Leave no one behind”’.

91 Cossé, ‘Greece's Moria Camp Fire’.

92 Just over a week later there were 243 positive cases of COVID-19 in Kara Tepe; Sertan Sanderson, ‘More than 240 new COVID-19 infections among migrants on Lesbos��, Info Migrants (2020), available at: {https://www.infomigrants.net/en/post/27464/more-than-240-new-covid-19-infections-among-migrants-on-lesbos} accessed 17 October 2020.

93 Interview with Anna, female Norwegian humanitarian professional in her late forties, 28 September 2020.

94 Interview with Igor, male Norwegian volunteer in his mid-fifties, 26 November 2019.

95 Souli, ‘Greek island refugee camps face coronavirus “disaster”’; Katy Fallon, ‘Child killed in Lesbos refugee camp fire’, The Guardian (2020), available at: {https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/16/child-killed-in-lesbos-refugee-camp-fire} accessed on 17 October 2020.

96 Cossé, ‘Greece's Moria Camp Fire’.

97 Interview with Anna, female Norwegian humanitarian professional in her late forties, 28 September 2020.

98 Cossé, ‘Greece's Moria Camp Fire’; ‘Moria migrants tear-gassed by Greek police in protest over new camp’, BBC (2020), available at: {https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-54131212} accessed 12 September 2020.

99 Interview with Anna, female Norwegian humanitarian professional in her late forties, 28 September 2020; and see Sofia Barbarani, ‘After Moria fire, refugees decry conditions in new camp on Lesbos’, Aljazeera (2020), available at: {https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/09/18/after-moria-fire-refugees-decry-conditions-in-new-camp-on-lesbos/} accessed 18 October 2020.

100 HRW, ‘Lead Poisoning Concerns in New Migrant Camp’ (2020), available at: {https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/12/08/greece-lead-poisoning-concerns-new-migrant-camp}.

101 Benjamin Bathke, ‘Doctors confirm rape of 3-year-old girl at Kara Tepe migrant camp’, InfoMigrants (21 December 2020), available at: {https://www.infomigrants.net/en/post/29226/doctors-confirm-rape-of-3-year-old-girl-at-kara-tepe-migrant-camp}.

102 Interview with Anna, female Norwegian humanitarian professional in her late forties, 28 September 2020; see also Karakoulaki, ‘New camp for refugees’.

103 European Commission, ‘Intervention’.

104 Moria camp was administratively under the Hellenic Ministry of Migration Policy and any reference to ‘authorities’ in this article is a reference to this Ministry unless stated otherwise.

105 Interview with Ole, male Danish volunteer in his early thirties, 29 February 2020.

106 Pallister-Wilkins, ‘Moria hotspot’.

107 ‘Lesvos mayor prevents freighter from unloading huts for Moria hotspot’, The Greek Observer (2017), available at: {https://thegreekobserver.com/blog/2017/12/11/lesvos-mayor-prevents-freighter-unloading-huts-moria-hotspot/} accessed 18 October 2020.

108 Interview with Erica, female Norwegian volunteer and researcher in her early thirties, 10 December 2019.

109 Interview with Angus, male Swedish humanitarian professional and field manager in his mid-forties, 9 March 2020.

110 UNHCR, Emergency Handbook. Site Planning for Transit Camps (Geneva: UNHCR, 2020).

111 Interview with Angus, male Swedish humanitarian professional and field manager in his mid-forties, 9 March 2020.

112 Davies, Isakjee, and Dhesi, ‘Violent inaction’; Staufenberg, ‘Refugee crisis’; Vogt, ‘Teenager killed’.

113 Agier, Managing the Undesirables.

114 Basaran, ‘The saved and the drowned’.

115 Eric Maddox, ‘AYS special from Lesvos: Right-wing attacks on refugees, volunteers, and locals’, Are You Syrious (2020), available at: {https://medium.com/are-you-syrious/ays-special-from-lesvos-right-wing-attacks-on-refugees-volunteers-and-locals-9f98779aef8e} accessed 18 October 2020.

116 Reidy, ‘Winter warnings’; ‘How the Greek island of Lesbos became a hub of right-wing activism’, TRT World (2020), available at: {https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/how-the-greek-island-of-lesbos-became-a-hub-of-right-wing-activism-36275} accessed 18 October 2020.

117 Fallon and Grant, ‘Lesbos coronavirus case’; Maddox, ‘AYS Special from Lesvos’; Smith, ‘“We left fearing for our lives”’; Souli, ‘Greek island refugee camps face coronavirus “disaster”’.

118 ‘Female refugees face dire situation after aid workers flee Lesbos’, ITV (2020), available at: {https://www.itv.com/news/2020-03-07/female-refugees-face-dire-situation-after-aid-workers-flee-lesbos/} accessed 18 October 2020; Grant, ‘Lesbos coronavirus case sparks fears for refugee camp’.

119 Interview with Olga, female Norwegian humanitarian professional in her mid-thirties, 26 November 2019.

120 Interview with Evan, male Norwegian volunteer in his mid-forties, 11 December 2019.

121 Interview with Igor, male Norwegian volunteer in his mid-fifties, 26 November 2019.

122 Interview with Nina, female Norwegian volunteer in her late fifties, 26 November 2019.

123 Interview with Leonard, male American in his early twenties, 26 November 2019.

124 Interview with Ole, male Danish volunteer in his early thirties, 29 February 2020.

125 Allsopp, ‘The European Facilitation Directive’; Yasha Maccanico, Ben Hayes, Samuel Kenny, and Frank Barat, ‘The Shrinking Space for Solidarity with Migrants and Refugees: How the European Union and Member States Target and Criminalize Defenders of the Rights of People on the Move’, Transnational Institute (Amsterdam, 2018), available at: {https://www.tni.org/files/publication-downloads/web_theshrinkingspace.pdf} accessed 18 October 2020; Lina Vosyliūtė and Carmine Conte, ‘Crackdown on NGOs and Volunteers Helping Refugees and Other Migrants’, ReSOMA (2019), available at: {http://www.resoma.eu/sites/resoma/resoma/files/policy_brief/pdf/Final%20Synthetic%20Report%20-%20Crackdown%20on%20NGOs%20and%20volunteers%20helping%20refugees%20and%20other%20migrants_1.pdf} accessed 18 October 2020; UN Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial, Summary or Arbitrary Executions, ‘Saving Lives is Not a Crime’, Report of the Special Rapporteur to the General Assembly, A/73/314 (7 August 2018).

126 Allsopp, ‘The European Facilitation Directive’.

127 Sandvik, Kristin, ‘Juridification, criminalization and lawfare in humanitarian space’, in Salter, Mark et al. (eds), ‘Horizon scan: Critical security studies for the next 50 years’, Security Dialogue, 50:4S (2019), pp. 9–37, 28–9Google Scholar.

128 Pallister-Wilkins, ‘Moria hotspot’, p. 75.

129 MSF, ‘Greece: Three Years of “Cruel, Inhumane, and Cynical” Treatment of Migrants and Refugees’ (2019), available at: {https://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/what-we-do/news-stories/news/greece-three-years-cruel-inhumane-and-cynical-treatment-migrants-and} accessed 17 October 2020.

130 Interview with Erica, female Norwegian volunteer and researcher in her early thirties, 10 December 2019.

131 Interview with Ole, male Danish volunteer in his early thirties, 29 February 2020.

132 Interview with Stephen, male Norwegian male volunteer in his late seventies, 15 January 2020.

133 Interview with Evan, male Norwegian volunteer in his mid-forties, 11 December 2019.

134 Notis Mitarakis ‘Radical Change in the Image of Immigrants: Who Pays Immigrants' Benefits’ (11 August 2020), available at: {https://www.newsit.gr/politikh/mitarakis-sto-newsit-gr-riziki-allagi-stin-eikona-tou-metanasteytikou-poios-plironei-ta-epidomata-ton-metanaston/3137348/}; Daphne Panayotatos, ‘Blocked at Every Pass: How Greece's Policy of Exclusion Harms Asylum Seekers and Refugees’, Issue Brief, Relief International (24 November 2020), available at: {https://www.refugeesinternational.org/reports/2020/11/20/blocked-at-every-pass-how-greeces-policy-of-exclusion-harms-asylum-seekers-and-refugees}.

135 Maccanico et al., ‘The Shrinking Space’; Mavelli, ‘Governing populations’.

136 Mavelli, ‘Governing populations’.

137 Pallister-Wilkins, ‘Moria hotspot’, p. 77.

138 Interview with Stephen, male Norwegian volunteer in his late seventies, 15 January 2020.

139 Howden, ‘Moria’, p. 66.

140 Ibid.

141 Mary Malafeka, ‘Moria Refugee Camp: Restriction of Movement and Living Conditions’, University of Oxford (2018), available at: {https://www.law.ox.ac.uk/research-subject-groups/centre-criminology/centreborder-criminologies/blog/2018/04/moria-refugee} accessed 18 October 2020.

142 Iliadou, ‘Safe havens’, p. 80.

143 Ibid.

144 Davies, Isakjee, and Dhesi, ‘Violent inaction’, p. 1280.

145 Iliadou, ‘Safe havens’, p. 81.

146 Mbembe, ‘Necropolitics’, p. 40.

147 Iliadou, ‘Safe havens’.

148 Bosworth, Inside Immigration Detention; Moran, Carceral Geography; Mountz et al., ‘Conceptualizing detention’; Howden, ‘Moria’; Oliver, Carceral Humanitarianism; Pallister-Wilkins, ‘Moria hotspot’; Tazzioli and Garelli, ‘Containment beyond detention’.

149 Tazzioli and Garelli, ‘Containment beyond detention’, p. 16.

150 McConnachie, ‘Camps of containment’, p. 406.

151 Bauman, Zygmunt, Modernity and the Holocaust (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1991)Google Scholar.

152 Foucault, ‘Society must be defended’; see also Albahari, Crimes of Peace; Mavelli, ‘Governing populations’; Squire, ‘Governing migration through death’.

153 McConnachie, ‘Camps of containment’.

154 Interview with Amalie, female Norwegian volunteer in her late fifties, 14 November 2019.

155 Interview with Salam Aldeen, founding member of the NGO ‘Team Humanity’, 28 January 2020.

156 Interview with Ole, male Danish volunteer in his early thirties, 29 February 2020.

157 Ministerial Decision 23/13532 – Government Gazette 5272 / Β / 30-11-2020, ‘General Regulations for the Operation of Temporary Reception Structures and Temporary Accommodation Structures for Third Country Nationals or Stateless Persons, which Operate with the Care of the Reception and Identification Service’, Greek Minister of Immigration and Asylum (30 November 2020), Art. 8.1, available at: {https://www.e-nomothesia.gr/kat-allodapoi/upourgike-apophase-23-13532-phek-5272b-30-11-2020.html}; Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor, ‘Greece's New Confidentiality Law Aims to Conceal Grave Violations against Asylum Seekers’ (11 December 2020), available at: {https://euromedmonitor.org/en/article/4057/Greece%E2%80%99s-new-confidentiality-law-aims-to-conceal-grave-violations-against-asylum-seekers}.

158 Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism.

159 Agamben, Homo Sacer.

160 Doty, ‘Bare life’.

161 Leyens, Jacques-Philippe, Paladino, Paola, Rodriguez-Torres, Ramon, Vaes, Jeroen, Demoulin, Stephanie, Rodriguez, Armando, and Gaunt, Ruth, ‘The emotional side of prejudice: The attribution of secondary emotions to ingroups and outgroups’, Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4:2 (2000), pp. 186–97CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

162 Bauman, Modernity and the Holocaust.

163 Basaran, ‘The saved and the drowned’, p. 215.

164 Warsan Shire, ‘Home’ (poem), SeekersGuidance (2015), available at: {https://seekersguidance.org/articles/social-issues/home-warsan-shire/}accessed 18 October 2020.

165 Interview with Erica, female Norwegian volunteer and researcher in her early thirties, 10 December 2019.

166 Goffman, Erving, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (New York: Doubleday Anchor, 1959)Google Scholar.

167 Interview with Evan, male Norwegian volunteer in his mid-forties, 11 December 2019.

168 Interview with Angus, male Swedish humanitarian professional and field manager in his mid-forties, 9 March 2020.

169 Interview with Angus.

170 Interview with Angus.

171 Interview with Greta, female English volunteer and co-ordinator in her late forties, 30 January 2020.

172 Interview with Nina, female Norwegian volunteer in her late fifties, 26 November 2019.

173 See also Howden, ‘Moria’.

174 Interview with Greta, female English volunteer and co-ordinator in her late forties, 30 January 2020.

175 Interview with Evan, male Norwegian volunteer in his mid-forties, 11 December 2019.

176 Interview with Greta, female English volunteer and co-ordinator in her late forties, 30 January 2020.

177 Pallister-Wilkins, ‘Moria hotspot’, p. 71.

178 Interview with Charles, male Norwegian humanitarian professional in his late forties, 6 June 2019; and see Pallister-Wilkins, ‘Moria hotspot’.

179 Interview with Stephen, male Norwegian volunteer in his late seventies, 15 January 2020.

180 Aila Spathopoulou, Anna Carastathis, and Mytro Tsilimpounidi, ‘“Vulnerable refugees” and “voluntary deportations”: Performing the hotspot, embodying its violence’, Geopolitics (2020), available at: {DOI: 10.1080/14650045.2020.1772237}.

181 Donadio, ‘“Welcome to Europe. Now go home”’.

182 Interview with Jenny, female Norwegian volunteer in her early fifties, 20 January 2020.

183 Interview with Stephen, male Norwegian volunteer in his late seventies, 15 January 2020.

184 Interview with Carl, male Norwegian volunteer in his mid-twenties, 12 May 2019.

185 Interview with Evan, male Norwegian volunteer in his mid-forties, 11 December 2019.

186 Interview with Greta, female English volunteer and co-ordinator in her late forties, 30 January 2020.

187 Interview with Greta.

188 Interview with Jenny, female Norwegian volunteer in her early fifties, 20 January 2020.

189 Reece Jones, Violent Borders: Refugees and the Right to Move (London: Verso, 2016).

190 Maribel Casas-Cortes et al., ‘New keywords: Migration and borders’, Cultural Studies, 29:1 (2015), pp. 55–87.

191 Diana Martin, Claudio Minca, and Irit Katz, ‘Rethinking the camp: On spatial technologies of power and resistance’, Progress in Human Geography, 44:4 (2020), pp. 743–68; McConnachie, ‘Camps of containment’.

192 Ashika Singh, ‘Arendt in the refugee camp: The political agency of world-building’, Political Geography, 77:102149 (2020); Ramadan, Adam, ‘Spatialising the refugee camp’, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 38:1 (2012), pp. 65–77CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

193 Sandri, Elisa, ‘“Volunteer humanitarianism”: Volunteers and humanitarian aid in the Jungle refugee camp of Calais’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 44:1 (2018), pp. 65–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

194 Interview with Lennard, male Norwegian volunteer in his late seventies, 15 January 2020.

195 Martin, Minca, and Katz, ‘Rethinking the camp’; Pallister-Wilkins, ‘Hotspots’.

196 Singh, ‘Arendt in the refugee camp’; Ramadan, ‘Spatialising the refugee camp’; Davies and Isakjee, ‘Ruins of empire’; Agier, Managing the Undesirables; Parekh, Serena, Refugees and the Ethics of Forced Displacement (London: Routledge, 2017)Google Scholar.

197 Ramadan, ‘Spatialising the refugee camp’, p. 71; Martin, Minca, and Katz, ‘Rethinking the camp’.

198 Casas-Cortes et al., ‘New keywords’.

199 Pallister-Wilkins, ‘Hotspots’.

200 Weber, Leanne, ‘From state-centric to transversal borders: Resisting the “structurally embedded border” in Australia’, Theoretical Criminology, 23:2 (2019), pp. 228–46CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

201 Dadusc and Mudu, ‘Care without control’, p. 1.

202 Gerard and Weber, ‘Humanitarian borderwork’, p. 266.