Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-r5fsc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T09:39:45.211Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Early Farming in Finland: Was there Cultivation before the Iron Age (500 BC)?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 January 2017

Maria Lahtinen  and
Peter Rowley-Conwy
Maria Lahtinen*
Affiliation:
Department of Archaeology, Durham University, UK
Peter Rowley-Conwy*
Affiliation:
Department of Archaeology, Durham University, UK
*
[email: [email protected]]
[email: [email protected]]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

We review the evidence for the earliest agriculture in Finland. The claims are all based on pollen analysis. Some claims go back to the Neolithic period. We contest these claims critically and argue that the ‘early cereal-type’ pollen grains may in fact come from large-grained wild grasses, and cannot be taken as clear evidence for cultivation in the absence of other lines of evidence. Cultivation of cereals in Finland may have started as late as the start of the Iron Age in c. 500 BC.

Nous réexaminons les preuves des débuts de l'agriculture en Finlande. Toutes les assertions se fondent sur des analyses polliniques; quelques-unes remontent jusqu’à la période néolithique. Nous évaluons de façon critique ces affirmations et avançons que les grains de pollen de type ‘céréales anciennes’ pourraient très bien provenir d'herbes sauvages à gros grains, et, en l'absence d'autres preuves, ne sauront pas servir comme preuves évidentes pour la culture de céréales. Il se peut que la culture des céréales en Finlande n'ait commencé qu'au début de l'Âge du Fer vers 500 BC. Translation by Isabelle Gerges.

Zusammenfassung

Zusammenfassung

In diesem Beitrag werden die frühesten Belege für Landwirtschaft in Finnland untersucht, die sämtlich auf Pollenanalysen beruhen und teilweise sogar Datierungen bis ins Neolithikum beanspruchen. Diese Ansätze werden kritisch untersucht und es wird vermutet, dass diese Pollenkörner ‘früher Cerealientypen’ eigentlich von langkörnigen Wildgräsern stammen und bei Abwesenheit anderer Belege nicht als klarer Beweis einer Kultivierung angesehen werden können. Die Kultivierung von Getreide wird erst zu einem späten Zeitpunkt, dem Beginn der Eisenzeit um etwa 500 v. Chr., begonnen haben. Translation by Heiner Schwarzberg.

Keywords

farmingcultivationcerealpollenFinlandIron AgeNeolithicBronze AgeagricultureculturecéréalespollenFinlandeÂge du FerNéolithiqueÂge du BronzeLandwirtschaftKultivierungGetreidePollenFinnlandEisenzeitNeolithikumBronzezeit
Type
Articles
Information
European Journal of Archaeology , Volume 16 , Issue 4 , 2013 , pp. 660 - 684
Copyright
Copyright © European Association of Archaeologists 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aalto, M., Siiriäinen, A., Vuorela, I. 1985. Humppila Järvensuo: A Preinvestigation for an Archaeological and Palaeobotanical Project in SW Finland. Iskos, 5: 165–77.Google Scholar
Alenius, T., Lavento, M., Saarnisto, M. 2009. Pollen-Analytical Results from Lake Katajajärvi: Aspects of the History of Settlement in the Finnish Inland Regions. Acta Borealia, 26: 136–55.Google Scholar
Alenius, T., Mikkola, E., Ojala, A. 2008. History of Agriculture in Mikkeli Orijärvi, Eastern Finland as Reflected by Palynological and Archaeological Data. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 17: 171–83.Google Scholar
Alenius, T., Mökkönen, T., Lahelma, A. 2013. Early Farming in the Northern Boreal Zone: Reassessing the History of Land Use in southeastern Finland through High-Resolution Pollen Analysis. Geoarchaeology, 28: 1–24.Google Scholar
Andersen, S. 1979. Identification of Wild Grass and Cereal Pollen. Danmarks Geologiske Undersogelse, 1978: 69–92 Google Scholar
Andersen, T.S., Bertelsen, F. 1972. Scanning Electron Microscope Studies of Pollen of Cereals and Other Grasses. Grana, 12: 79–86.Google Scholar
Asplund, H., Formisto, T., Illmer, K. 1989. Kotirinne—A Late Neolithic Mixed Farming Site: Osteological and Chemical Investigations at the Kotirinne Dwelling Site at Niuskala, Turku, SW Finland. Norwegian Archaeological Review, 22: 119–29.Google Scholar
Asplund, H., Vuorela, I. 1998. Settlement Studies in Kemiö: Archaeological Problems and Palynological Evidence. Fennoscandia Archaeologica, 6: 67–79.Google Scholar
Barnekow, L., Possnert, G., Sandgren, P. 1998. AMS C-14 Chronologies of Holocene Lake Sediments in the Abisko Area, Northern Sweden: A Comparison Between Dated Bulk Sediment and Macrofossil Samples. GFF, 120: 59–67.Google Scholar
Behre, K.-E. 2007. Evidence for Mesolithic Agriculture in and around Central Europe? Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 16: 203–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beug, H.-J. 1961. Leitfaden der Pollenbestimmung fur Mitteleuropa und angrenzende Gebiete. Stuttgart: Fischer.Google Scholar
Beug, H.-J. 2004. Leitfaden der Pollenbestimmung fur Mitteleuropa und angrenzende Gebiete. Munich: Pfeil.Google Scholar
Black, R.A., Bliss, L.C. 1980. Reproductive Ecology of Picea Mariana (Mill.) BSP., at Tree Line Near Inuvik, Northwest Territories, Canada. Ecological Monographs, 50: 331–54.Google Scholar
Bläuer, A., Kantanen, J. 2013. Transition from Hunting to Animal Husbandry in Southern, Western and Eastern Finland: New Dated Osteological Evidence. Journal of Archaeological Science, 40: 1646–66.Google Scholar
Bronk Ramsay, C. 2009. Bayesian Analysis of Radiocarbon Dates. Radiocarbon, 51 (1): 337–60.Google Scholar
Carpelan, C. 2002. Esihistorian vuosiluvut, ajoitukset ja kronologia. In: Grünthal, R., ed. Ennen muinoin. Helsinki: Suomalaisen kirjallisuuden seura, pp. 18–27.Google Scholar
Caseldine, C., Fyfe, R., Hjelle, K. 2008. Pollen Modelling, Palaeoecology and Archaeology: Virtualisation and/or Visualisation of the Past? Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 17: 543–9.Google Scholar
Costopoulos, A., Vaneeckhout, S., Okkonen, J., Hulse, E., Paberzyte, I., Wren, C.D. 2012. Social Complexity in the Mid-Holocene Northeastern Bothnian Gulf. European Journal of Archaeology, 15: 41–60.Google Scholar
Donner, J. 1984. Some Comments on the Pollen-Analytical Records of Cereals and Their Dating in Southern-Finland. Fennoscandia Archaeologica, 1: 13–7.Google Scholar
Donner, J., Alhonen, P., Eronen, M., Jungner, H., Vuorela, I. 1978. Biostratigraphy and Radiocarbon Dating of the Holocene Lake Sediments of Työtjärvi and the Peats in the Adjoining Bog Varrassuo West of Lahti in Southern Finland. Annales Botanici Fennici, 15: 258–80.Google Scholar
Edgren, T. 1999. Alkavan rautakauden kulttuurikuva. In: Fogelberg, P., ed. Pohjolan poluilla. Helsinki: The Finnish Society of Science and Letters, pp. 311–33.Google Scholar
Edwards, K.J. 1989. The Cereal Pollen Record and Early Agriculture. In: Milles, A., Williams, D., Gardner, N., eds. The Beginnings of Agriculture. British Archaeological Reports International Series 496. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, pp. 113–47.Google Scholar
Erdtman, G., Berglund, B., Praglowski, J. 1961. An Introduction to Scandinavian Pollen Flora. Grana, 2 (3): 3–92.Google Scholar
Faegri, K., Iversen, J., Krzywinski, K. 1989. Textbook of Pollen Analysis. Thirth edition. Copenhagen: Scandinavian University Books.Google Scholar
Faegri, K., Iversen, J., Krzywinski, K. 1989. Textbook of Pollen Analysis. Fourth edition. Chichester: Wiley.Google Scholar
Franzén, L., Hjelmroos, M. 1988. A Coloured Snow Episode on the Swedish West Coast, January 1987: A Quantitative and Qualitative Study of Air Borne Particles. Geografiska Annaler. Series A, Physical Geography, 70: 235–43.Google Scholar
Grimm, E.C., Nelson, D.M. 2009. The Magnitude of Error in Conventional Bulk-Sediment Radiocarbon Dates from Central North America. Quaternary Research, 72: 301–08.Google Scholar
Grönlund, E., Kivinen, L., Simola, H. 1992. Pollen Analytical Evidence for Bronze-Age Cultivation in Eastern Finland. Laborativ arkeologi, 6: 37–42.Google Scholar
Heikinheimo, O. 1915. Kaskiviljelyn vaikutus Suomen metsiin. Acta Forestalia Fennica, 4: 1–264.Google Scholar
Hicks, S. 1985. Problems and Possibilities in Correlating Historical/Archaeological and Pollen-Analytical Evidence in a Northern Boreal Environment: An Example from Kuusamo, Finland. Fennoscandia Archaeologica, 2: 51–84.Google Scholar
Hicks, S., Birks, H.J.B. 1996. Numerical Analysis of Modern and Fossil Pollen Spectra as a Tool for Elucidating the Nature of Fine-Scale Human Activities in Boreal Areas. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 5: 257–72.Google Scholar
Hjelmroos, M., Franzén, L.G. 1994. Implications of Recent Long-Distance Pollen Transport Events for the Interpretation of Fossil Pollen Records in Fennoscandia. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 82: 175–89.Google Scholar
Holmblad, P. 2010. Coastal Communities on the Move: House and Polity Interaction in Southern Ostrobothnia 1500 BC—AD 1. Archaeology and Environment 26. Umeå: Department of Historical, Philosophical and Religious Studies.Google Scholar
Hörnberg, G., Staland, H., Nordström, E.-M., Korsman, T., Segerström, U. 2012. Fire as an Important Factor for the Genesis of Boreal Picea Abies Swamp Forests in Fennoscandia. The Holocene, 22: 203–14.Google Scholar
Huttunen, P. 1980. Early Land Use, Especially the Slash-and-Burn Cultivation in the Commune of Lammi, Southern Finland, Interpreted Mainly Using Pollen and Charcoal Analyses. Acta Botanica Fennica, 113: 1–45.Google Scholar
Huttunen, P., Tolonen, K. 1977. Human Influence in the History of Lake Lovojärvi, S. Finland. Finskt Museum, 1975: 68–105.Google Scholar
Huurre, M. 1983. Pohjois-Pohjanmaan ja Lapin historia I: Pohjois-Pohjanmaan ja Lapin esihistoria. Oulu: Pohjois-Pohjanmaan, maakuntaliiton ja Lapin maakuntaliiton yhteinen historiatoimikunta.Google Scholar
Huurre, M. 2003. Viljanviljelyn varhaisvaiheet. In: Rasila, V., Jutikkala, E., Mäkelä-Alitalo, A. eds. Suomen maatalouden historia 1. Perinteisen Maatalouden aika esihistoriasta 1870-luvulle. Jyväskylä: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, pp. 19–37.Google Scholar
Jeunesse, C. 2008. Un Néolithique non Cardial antérieur à 5500 cal BC dans l'interieur de la Péninsule Ibérique? Un point de vue extérieur. In: Hernandez Pérez, M.S., Solar Díaz, J.A., López Padilla, J.A., eds. IV Congreso del Neolítico Peninsular, 27–30 de Noviembre de 2006, vol. II. Alicante: Museo Arqueológico de Alicante, pp. 391–6.Google Scholar
Johansen, O.S., Vorren, K.-D. 1986. The Prehistoric Expansion of Farming into ‘Arctic’ Norway: A Chronology Based on 14C Dating. Radiocarbon, 28: 739–47.Google Scholar
Koivula, L., Raatikainen, M., Kananen, T., Vasari, Y. 1994. Ihmisen vaikutus luontoon Keski-Suomessa siitepölytutkimuksen valossa. Jyväskylän Yliopisto. Historian Laitos. Suomen Historian Julkaisuja, 21: 1–93.Google Scholar
Lampinen, R., Lahti, T. 2012. Kasviatlas 2010. University of Helsinki, Finnish Museum of Natural History, Botanical Museum, Helsinki [Accessed 13 May 2012]. Available at: <http://www.luomus.fi/kasviatlas>Google Scholar
Larjavaara, M., Pennanen, J., Tuomi, T. 2005. Lightning that Ignites Forest Fires in Finland. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 132: 171–80.Google Scholar
Lavento, M. 1998. Sisämaan vanhemman metallikauden väestö tutkimusongelmana. Muinaistutkija, 4: 44–55.Google Scholar
Lehtonen, H. 1998. Fire History Recorded on Pine Trunks and Stumps: Influence of Land Use and Fires on Forest Structure in North Karelia. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research, 13: 462–68.Google Scholar
Lempiäinen, T. 1999. Hiiltyneet viljanjyvät ja maanviljelyn alku Suomessa. In: Fogelberg, P. ed. Pohjolan Poluilla. Helsinki: The Finnish Society of Science and Letters, pp. 152–4.Google Scholar
Luukko, A. 1954. Pohjois-Pohjanmaan ja Lapin historia. 2. Pohjois-Pohjanmaan ja Lapin keskiaika sekä 1500-luku. Oulu: Pohjois-Pohjanmaan maakuntaliiton ja Lapin maakuntaliiton yhteinen historiatoimikunta.Google Scholar
Mökkönen, T. 2010. Kivikautinen maanviljely Suomessa. Suomen Museo, 2009: 5–38.Google Scholar
Moore, P., Webb, J., Collinson, M. 1991. Pollen Analysis. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.Google Scholar
Nordqvist, K., Herva, V-P. 2013. Copper Use, Cultural Change and Neolithization in North-eastern Europe (c. 5500–1800 BC). European Journal of Archaeology, 32: 401–32.Google Scholar
Nuñez, M. 2004. All Quiet on the Eastern Front? In: Knutsson, H. ed. Coast to Coast: Arrival. Results and Reflections. Coast to Coast Books 10. Uppsala: Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, pp. 345–67.Google Scholar
Onnela, J., Lempiäinen, T., Luoto, J. 1996. Viking Age Cereal Cultivation in SW Finland: A Study of Charred Grain from Pahamäki in Pahka, Lieto. Annales Botanici Fennici, 33: 237–55.Google Scholar
Pitkänen, A., Huttunen, P. 1999. A 1300-Year Forest-Fire History at a Site in Eastern Finland Based on Charcoal and Pollen Records in Laminated Lake Sediment. The Holocene, 9: 311–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pitkänen, A., Huttunen, P., Tolonen, K., Jungner, H. 2003a. Long-Term Fire Frequency in the Spruce-Dominated Forests of the Ulvinsalo Strict Nature Reserve, Finland. Forest Ecology and Management, 176: 305–19.Google Scholar
Pitkänen, A., Huttunen, P., Jungner, H., Meriläinen, J., Tolonen, K. 2003b. Holocene Fire History of Middle Boreal Pine Forest Sites in Eastern Finland. Annales Botanici Fennici, 40: 15–33.Google Scholar
Rankama, T., Vuorela, I. 1988. Between Inland and Coast in Metal Age Finland - Human Impact on the Primeval Forests of Southern Häme during the Iron Age. Memoranda Societatis Pro Fauna et Flora Fennica, 64: 25–34.Google Scholar
Reille, M. 1992. Pollen et spores d'Europe et d'Afrique du nord, supplément 1. Marseille: Laboratoire de botanique historique et palynologie.Google Scholar
Reille, M. 1995. Pollen et spores d'Europe et d'Afrique du nord, supplément 2. Marseille: Laboratoire de botanique historique et palynologie.Google Scholar
Reynald, C., Hjelmroos, M. 1976. Vegetational History and Evidence of Settlement on Hailuoto, Finland, Established by Means of Pollen Analysis and Radiocarbon Dating. Aguilo Series Botany, 14: 46–60.Google Scholar
Reynald, C., Hjelmroos, M. 1980. Pollen Evidence and Radiocarbon Dating of Human Activity within the Natural Forest Vegetation of the Pohjonmaa Region (Northern Finland). Candollea, 35: 257–304.Google Scholar
Rowley, J.R. 1960. The Exine Structure of Cereal and Wild Type Grass Pollen. Grana Palynologica, 2: 9–15.Google Scholar
Rowley-Conwy, P. 1983. Reviews. Journal of Danish Archaeology, 2: 205–09.Google Scholar
Rowley-Conwy, P. 2004. How the West Was Lost: A Reconsideration of Agricultural Origins in Britain, Ireland, and Southern Scandinavia. Current Anthropology, 45: 83–113.Google Scholar
Sarmaja-Korjonen, K. 1992. Fine-Interval Pollen and Charcoal Analysis as Tracers of Early Clearance Periods in S Finland. Acta Botanica Fennica, 146: 1–75.Google Scholar
Segerström, U., von Stedingk, H., Hörnberg, G. 2008. Long-Term Sustainability of a Northern Boreal Deciduous Swamp Forest in Northern Sweden: Succession in the Absence of Fire. The Holocene, 18: 1113–22.Google Scholar
Simola, H. 1999. Siitepölyanalyysin mahdollisuudet ja rajat. In: Fogelberg, P., ed. Pohjolan Poluilla. Helsinki: Finnish Society of Science and Letters, pp. 155–8.Google Scholar
Simola, H. 2012. Kivikautista maanviljelyä ei voi todistaa siitepölyanalyysillä. Suomen Museo, 2011: 137–8.Google Scholar
Simola, H., Grönlund, E., Taavitsainen, J-P., Huttunen, P. 1991. Savolanen väestöräjähdys. In: Hakamies, P., ed. Saimaalta Kolille. Joensuu: Karjanlantutkimuksenlaitos, pp. 241–59.Google Scholar
Stanton, T., Snowball, I., Zillén, L., Wastegård, S. 2010. Validating a Swedish Varve Chronology Using Radiocarbon, Palaeomagnetic Secular Variation, Lead Pollution History and Statistical Correlation. Quaternary Geochronology, 5: 611–24.Google Scholar
Telford, R., Heegaard, E., Birks, H. 2004. All Age-Depth Models are Wrong: But How Badly? Quaternary Science Reviews, 23: 1–5.Google Scholar
Tikkanen, R. 1978. Kulttuurin vaikutuksesta Lohijärven seudun kasvillisuuteen. Faravid, 2: 63–73.Google Scholar
Tinner, W., Nielsen, E.H., Lotter, A.F. 2007. Mesolithic Agriculture in Switzerland? A Critical Review of the Evidence. Quaternary Science Reviews, 26: 1416–31.Google Scholar
Tolonen, M. 1978a. The History of Agriculture in Sääksmäki Traced by Pollen Analysis. Annales Botanici Fennici, 15: 47–54.Google Scholar
Tolonen, M. 1978b. Paleoecology of Annually Laminated Sediments in Lake Ahvenainen, S. Finland. I. Pollen and Charcoal Analyses and their Relation to Human Impact. Annales Botanici Fennici, 15: 177–208.Google Scholar
Tolonen, M. 1980a. Postglacial Pollen Stratigraphy of Lake Lamminjärvi, S Finland. Annales Botanici Fennici, 17: 15–25.Google Scholar
Tolonen, M. 1980b. Degradation Analysis of Pollen in Sediments of Lake Lamminjärvi, S Finland. Annales Botanici Fennici, 17: 11–4.Google Scholar
Tolonen, M. 1981. An Absolute and Relative Pollen Analytical Study on Prehistoric Agriculture in South Finland. Annales Botanici Fennici, 18: 213–20.Google Scholar
Tolonen, K. 1984. Paleoekologin puheenvuoro. In: Galén, J., ed. Suomen väestön esihistorialliset juuret. Bidrag till kännedom av Finlands natur och folk, 131. Helsinki: Societas Scientiarum Fennica, pp. 319–25Google Scholar
Tolonen, M. 1985. Paleobotanical reconstrudtion of vegetation in a prehistoric settlement area, Salo, SW Finland. Annales Botanici Fennici, 22: 101–16.Google Scholar
Tolonen, M. 1987. Vegetational History in Coastal SW Finland Studied on a Lake and a Peat Bog by Pollen and Charcoal Analyses. Annales Botanici Fennici, 24: 353–70.Google Scholar
Tolonen, M. 1990. Pollen-Analytical Evidence of Ancient Human Action in the Hillfort Area of Kuhmoinen, Central Finland. In: Taavitsainen, J.-P., ed. Ancient Hillforts of Finland. Helsinki: Suomen Muinaismuistoyhdistys, pp. 247–69.Google Scholar
Tolonen, M., Ruuhijärvi, R. 1976. Stantard Pollen Diagrams from Salpauselkä Region of Southern Finland. Annales Botanici Fennici, 13: 155–96.Google Scholar
Tolonen, K., Siiriäinen, A., Hirviluoto, A.-L. 1976. Iron Age Cultivation in SW Finland. Finskt Museum, 83: 5–66.Google Scholar
Valen, C.R. 2007. Jordbruksimpulser i Neolitikum og Bronsealder i Nord-Norge? En Revisjon av det Arkeologiske Gjenstandmaterialet og de Naturvitenskapelige Undersøkelsene. Tromsø: Institutt for Arkeologi.Google Scholar
Vanhanen, S. 2010. Charred Seeds in Mikkeli Orijärvi: A Study of Subsistence Strategies of an Iron Age Settlement in East Finland. , University of Helsinki, Department of Archaeology, Helsinki. https://helda.helsinki.fi/handle/10138/26504 Google Scholar
Vikkula, A., Seppälä, S.-L., Lempiäinen, T. 1994. The Ancient Field of Rapola. Fennoscandia Archaeologica, 11: 41–59.Google Scholar
Viklund, K. 2011. Early Farming at Umeå in Västerbotten. Charred Cereal Grains Dated to the Bronze Age. Fornvännen, 106: 238–42.Google Scholar
Vuorela, I. 1973. Relative Pollen Rain Around Cultivated Fields. Acta Botanica Fennica, 102: 1–27.Google Scholar
Vuorela, I. 1975. Pollen Analysis as a Means of Tracing Settlement History in SW Finland. Acta Botanica Fennica, 104: 2–48.Google Scholar
Vuorela, I. 1986. Palynological and Historical Evidence of Slash-and-Burn Cultivation in South Finland. In: Behre, K.-E., ed. Anthropogenic Indicators in Pollen Diagrams. Rotterdam: Balkema, pp. 53–64.Google Scholar
Vuorela, I. 1990. Pollenanalytiska studier. In: Zillacius, Z., ed. Finska Skären. Studier i Åbolandsk Kulturhistoria. Föreningen Konstsamfundets Publikationsserie 7. Helsinki: Konstsamfundet, pp. 115–32.Google Scholar
Vuorela, I. 1991. Lounais-Suomen Varhaismetallikautinen asutus ja viljely siitepölyanalyysin valossa. Karhunhammas, 13: 2–23.Google Scholar
Vuorela, I. 1993. The Past and the Present of the Past and Present Nature of the Rasi Area. Helsinki Papers in Archaeology, 5: 11–39.Google Scholar
Vuorela, I. 1994. Keski-Suomen asutushistoriaa keuruun ja jämsän järvikerrostumien arkistossa. Espoo: Geologian tutkimuskeskus. Google Scholar
Vuorela, I. 1995. Keski-Suomen asutushistoriaa Keuruun ja Jämsän Järvikerrostumien arkistossa. Espoo: Geologian Tutkimuskeskus.Google Scholar
Vuorela, I. 1997. Pihtiputaan karvalampi paleoekologisen tutkimuksen kohteena. Espoo: Geologian tutkimuskeskus. Google Scholar
Vuorela, I. 1999. The Beginning of Agricultural Land Use in Finland: An Assessment Based on Palynological Data. PACT, 57: 339–51.Google Scholar
Vuorela, I., Hicks, S. 1996. Human Impact on the Natural Landscape in Finland. A Review of the Pollen Evidence. PACT, 50: 245–57.Google Scholar
Vuorela, I., Kankainen, T. 1991. Siitepölyanalyyttinen tutkimus asutuksen vaikutuksesta kasvillisuuteen Puolangan kunnan Kotilan kylässä. Espoo: Geologian Tutkimuskeskus.Google Scholar
Vuorela, I., Kankainen, T. 1992. Tammelan asutushoria Kuivajärven kerrostumien Paleoekologisten tutkimuksien valossa. Espoo: Geologian tutkimuskeskus.Google Scholar
Vuorela, I., Kankainen, T. 1993. Luonnon- ja Kulttuurimaiseman kehitys Taipalsaaressa. Espoo: Geologian tutkimuskeskus.Google Scholar
Vuorela, I., Lempiäinen, T. 1988. Archaeobotany of the Oldest Cereal Grain in Finland. Annales Botanici Fennici, 25: 33–45.Google Scholar
Vuorela, I., Lempiäinen, T., Saarnisto, M. 2001. Land Use Pollen Record from the Island of Valamo, Russian Karelia. Annales Botanici Fennici, 38: 139–65.Google Scholar
Vuorela, I., Uutela, A., Saarnisto, M., Ilmasti, M., Kankainen, T. 1993. Vuojärven ja Antinlammen kerrotumat Laukaan asutus ja luonnonhistorian arkistona. Espoo: Geologian Tutkimuskeskus.Google Scholar
Whittle, A., Healy, F., Bayliss, A. 2011. Gathering Time: Dating the Early Neolithic Enclosures of Southern Britain and Ireland. Oxford: Oxbow Books.Google Scholar
Zvelebil, M. 1981. From Forager to Farmer in the Boreal Zone. British Archaeological Reports International Series 115. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.Google Scholar
Zvelebil, M., Rowley-Conwy, P. 1984. Transition to Farming in Northern Europe: A Hunter-Gatherer Perspective. Norwegian Archaeological Review, 17: 104–20.Google Scholar