Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7fkt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T23:07:38.177Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Cremations as Transformations: When the Dual Cultural Hypothesis was Cremated and Carried Away in Urns

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 January 2017

Terje Oestigaard*
Affiliation:
Department of Archaeology, University of Bergen

Abstract

A cremation and subsequent burial can be analysed as a set of technological, social and ritual transformations. It consists of three parts: first, the place where the body was burnt or cremated; secondly, the intermediary period in time and space, where the cleaned bones are often transported somewhere else; this interval increases the room for manoeuvre in those aspects which are concerned with the renewal, reorganization and re-legitimization of relations between the living; and, finally, the place where the ashes or the bones were deposited or buried, which may be the same place where the body was cremated, but normally it is not. Thus the urn represents the place where the deceased died, the cremated bones are from the rite of cremation, whereas the burial of the urn and the deposition of undamaged artefacts are from the final burial site, where other rituals were performed by the descendants, relatives and others. The distribution of urns may illuminate the notion that distance has hardly been a barrier and that people from, the ‘northern margins’ have travelled all over Europe from the late Bronze Age to the Viking period. This approach attacks the dual cultural hypothesis and some elements of core–periphery models.

En kremasjonsbegravelse kan bli analysert som teknologiske, sosiale og rituelle transformasjoner, og består av tre faser: 1) Stedet hvor den avdøde blir brent eller kremert. 2) En mellomfase i tid og rom. I løpet av denne perioden kan beinrestene bli renset, eventuelt forbli urenset, lagt i ei urne og transportert over store avstander. 3) Stedet hvor asken og beinene er deponert eller begravd. Dette stedet kan være den samme gravplassen hvor avdøde ble kremert hvis det er en sammensmelting av mellomfasen i tid og rom, men vanligvis må den avdøde fraktes i ei urne til det siste og endelige hvilestedet. Urnen representerer stedet hvor personen døde, de kremerte beinene er fra den første begravelsen (kremasjonen) mens begravelsen av urnen og nedleggelsen av uskadete gjenstander stammer fra den andre og siste begravelsen hvor andre ritualer ble utført av familien, slektninger og andre tilstedeværende. Distribusjonen av urner kan belyse at distanse ikke har vært ei hindring i forhistorien, og at folk fra de ‘nordlige utkantsområdene’ reiste rundt i Europa i fra yngre bronsealder til vikingtid. Denne tilnærmingen går i mot kulturdualismen og deler av sentrum-periferi modellene.

Une crémation et son ensevelissement peuvent s'analyser comme une série de transformations techniques, sociales et rituelles, en trois stades:- premièrement, le moment et le lieu où le corps a été brûlé ou indnéré; deuxièmement, la période intermédiaire dans le temps et dans l'espace où les os sont le plus souvent transportés ailleurs. Cet interval accroit l'espace conceptuel necéssaire au renouvellement, à la réorganisation et à la re-légimitation des relations entre les vivants. Enfin, l'endroit où les cendres ou les os sont déposés ou enterrés, qui peut être le lieu de crémation même mais ne l'est en général pas. L'urne représente done l'endroit où le défunt est mort, les os brûlés correspondent au rite de cremation, tandis que l'enterrement de l'urne et le dépôt des objets intacts appartiennent à la tombe finale, où les descendants présents et autres poursuivent les autres rites. L'analyse de la répartition spatiale des urnes peut éclairer la notion que la distance n'a pas vraiment constitué un frein aux déplacements et que les habitants des “marges du Nord” ont voyagé à travers toute l'Europe, du Bronze Final à la période Viking. L'approche présentée ici s'attaque à l'hypothèse d'une double culture scandinave et à certains éléments des modèles centre-périphérie.

Zusammenfassung

Zusammenfassung

Eine Leichenyerbrennung mit anschliessender Bestattung kann als Set technologischer, sozialer und ritueller Transformationen analysiert werden. Sie besteht aus drei Teilen: erstens, dem Ort, an dem der Körper verbrannt wurde; zweitens, der Zwischenphase in Zeit und Raum, in der die gereinigten Knochen oft anderswo hin transportiert werden; dieses Intervall vergrössert den Raum für Manipulationen in jenen Bereichen, die die Erneuerung, Reorganisation und Re-Legitimation der Beziehungen zwischen den Lebenden betreffen; und schliesslich, dem Ort, an dem die Asche oder die Knochen niedergelegt oder vergraben werden, was der gleiche Ort wie der Verbrennungsplatz sein kann aber normalerweise nicht ist. So repräsentiert die Urne den Ort, an dem die oder der Tote starb, die verbrannten Knochen stammen vom Ritual am Scheiterhaufen, während die Bestattung der Urne und die Beigabe unzerstörter Artefakte vom endgültigen Bestattungsplatz stammen, an dem weitere Rituale von Nachkommen, Verwandten und anderen durchgeführt wurden. Die Verbreirung von Urnen verdeutlicht, dass räumliche Distanz kaum eine Barriere war und dass Leute vom ‘nördlichen Rand’ durch ganz Europa gereist sind, von der Spätbronze- bis in die Wikingerzeit. Diese These greift die duale Kulturhypothese an sowie Elemente von Zentrum-Peripherie-Modellen.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © 1999 Sage Publications 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Barber, P., 1990. Cremation: The Journal of Indo-European Studies 18 (3–4): 379388.Google Scholar
Bell, C., 1992. Ritual Theory, Ritual Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Bjørn, A., 1926. Tidlig metallkultur i Norge. Oldtiden XL: 176. Oslo.Google Scholar
Bjørn, A., 1935. Arkeologiske misceller. Universitetets Oldsaksamling Årbok 1933–1934: 120. Oslo.Google Scholar
Bloch, M. and Parry, J., 1987. Introduction: death and regeneration of life. In Bloch, M. and Parry, J. (eds), Death and Regeneration of Life: 144. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bourdieu, P., 1996. Symbolsk makt. Artikler i utvalg. Oversatt av Annick Prieur. Oslo: Pax Forlag A/S.Google Scholar
Bradley, R., 1984. The Social Foundations of Prehistoric Britain. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Brøgger, A.W., 1925. Det norske folk i oldtiden. Oslo: Instituttet for sammenlignende kulturforskning.Google Scholar
Collett, D., 1993. Metaphors and representations associated with precolonial iron-smelting in eastern and southern Africa. In Shaw, T., Sinclair, P., Bassey, A. and Okpoko, A. (eds), The Archaeology of Africa: 499511. London and New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Curtin, D.W., 1992. Food, body, person. In Curtin, D.W. and Heldke, L.M. (eds), Cooking Eating, Thinking. Transformative Philosophies of Food: 322. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Dommasnes, L.H., 1998. Tradisjon og handling i førkristen vestnorsk gravskikk. II. Fra Veriede til vikingtid. . University of Bergen, Bergen.Google Scholar
Eggers, K., 1951. Der römische Import im freien Germanien. Hamburg: Römisch-germanischen Kommission des Deutschen Archaeoloischen Institut.Google Scholar
Geertz, C., 1973. The Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Gjessing, G., 1934. Studier i norsk merovingertid. Det norske Videnskaps-Akademi i Oslo IL Hist.-Filos. Klasse 1934. No. 2. Oslo: Jacob Dybwad.Google Scholar
Goody, J., 1962. Death, Property and the Ancestors. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Gräslund, B., 1994. Prehistoric soul beliefs in northern Europe. Proceedings of Prehistoric Society 60: 1526.Google Scholar
Haavaldsen, P., 1985. Sørnorske ansiktsurner – en lokal utforming av en kontinental oldsaksgruppe. AmS-Skrifler 11: 2532. Stavanger.Google Scholar
Hagen, A., 1997. Gåten om Kong Raknes grav. Oslo: Cappelen.Google Scholar
Hauken, A.D., 1984. Vestlandskittlar. En studie av provinsialromersk importgrupp i Norge. Upublished hovedfagsoppgave i arkeologi. Bergen: Universitetet i Bergen.Google Scholar
Hedeager, L., 1992. Iron-Age Societies. From Tribe to State in Northern Europe, 500 BC to AD 700. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Heidegger, M., 1977. The Question Concerning Technology. New York and London: Garland.Google Scholar
Heidegger, M., 1997[1962]. Being and Time. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Helgen, H., 1982. Odd og egg. Merovingertidsfunn fra Hordaland, Sogn og Fjordane. Arkeologiske avhandlinger 3. Bergen: Historisk Museum. Universitetet i Bergen.Google Scholar
Hertz, R., 1960. Death and the Right Hand. Aberdeen: Cohen & West, The University Press Aberdeen.Google Scholar
Hodder, I., 1982. The Present Past. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hodder, I., 1999. The Archaeological Process. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Holck, P., 1987. Cremated Bones. A medical-anthropological study of archaeological material on cremated burials. Antropologiske skrifter 1. Anatomisk Institutt, Oslo: Universitetet i Oslo.Google Scholar
Hubert, H. and Mauss, M., 1964. Sacrifice: Its Nature and Function. Chicago, IL and London: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Johansen, O., 1986. Tidlig metallkultur i Adger. Universitetets Oldsaksamlings Skrifter. Ny rekke 8. Oslo: Oldsaksamlingen.Google Scholar
Kaliff, A., 1992. Branngravskikk och förestäallningswärld. En religionsarkeologisk diskussion. Occasional Papers in Archaeology 4. Uppsala: Uppsala University.Google Scholar
Kaliff, A., 1997. Grav och kultplass. Aun 24. Uppsala: Uppsala University.Google Scholar
Kaliff, A., 1998. Grave structures and altars: archaeological traces of Bronze Age eschatological conceptions. European Journal of Archaeology 1 (2): 177198.Google Scholar
Knipe, D.M., 1977. Sapindikarana: The Hindu Rite of Entry into Heaven. In Reynolds, F.E. and Waugh, E.H. (eds), Religious Encounters with Death: 111124. Philadelphia and London: Pennsylvania State University Press.Google Scholar
Kristoffersen, S., 1997. Dyreornamentikkens sosiale tilhørighet og maktpolitiske sammenheng. Nydamstil og Stil 1 i Sør- og Sørvestnorge. Unpublished dr.art-thesis. University of Bergen, Bergen.Google Scholar
Larsson, T.B., 1989. Regionalitet som et produkt av samhälleliga processer. Regionale forhold i Nordisk Bronzealder: 1517. Jysk Arasologsik Selskabs Srifter XXIV. Aarhus Universitetsforlag.Google Scholar
Levi-Strauss, C., 1964. The Raw and the Cooked. London: Pimlico.Google Scholar
Lund Hansen, U., 1987. Römischer Import im Norden. Warenaustausch zwischen dem Römischen Reich und dem freien Germanien während der Kaiserzeit unter besonderer Berücksichtigung Nordeuropas. Copenhagen: Det kongelige Nordiske Oldskriftselskab.Google Scholar
Meiggs, A.S., 1992. Food rales and the traditional sexual ideology. In Curtin, D.W. and Heldke, L.M. (eds), Cooking, Eating, Thinking. Transformative Philosophies of Food: 109118. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Møllerup, O., 1950. Brannflakgraver på Vestlandet i eldre jernalder. 3846. Særtrykk av Stavanger Museums Årbok 1950. Stavanger.Google Scholar
Myhre, B., 1987. Chieftains' graves and chiefdom territories in south Norway in the Migration period. Studien zur Sachsenforschung 6: 169187. Hannover: Niedersächsisches Landesmuseum Hannover.Google Scholar
Nicolaysen, N., 1877. Udgravinger i Fjære 1876. Norske fortidsmindesmerkers bevaring. Aarsberetninger for 1876: 117139. Kristiania: Carl. C. Werner & Komp's Bogtrykkeri.Google Scholar
Nissen Fett, E., 1972. Forhistorisk tid. In Vaage, E. (ed.), Kvinnherad Bygdesoga: 1157. Rosendal: Kvinnherad Bygdeboknemd.Google Scholar
Oestigaard, T., 1997. Hvordan tolke et arkeologisk materiale? Forståelse av fortiden gjennom bruk av analogi og etnoarkeologi. Arkeo 2: 2024. Bergen: University of Bergen.Google Scholar
Oestigaard, T., 1998. The deceased's life cycle rituals. Present cremation burials for interpretations of the past. An ethnoarchaeological study of funeral practices in Nepal (submitted to press). in Archaeology, Department of Archaeology, University of Bergen.Google Scholar
Oestigaard, T., 1999. Mellomfasen i kremasjonsbegravelser. In Gansum, T. and Kaliff, A. (eds), Kremasjon og kunnskapsprosess. Eksprimentelle kremasjoner. Stavanger AmS-Varia.Google Scholar
Oliver, K., 1992. Nourishing the speaking subject: a psychoanalytic approach to abominable food and woman. In Curtin, D.W. and Heldke, L.M. (eds), Cooking, Eating, Thinking, Transformative Philosophies of Food: 6884. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Pandey, R.B., 1969. Hindu Samskaras. Delhi: Montilal Banarsidass.Google Scholar
Parry, J., 1994. Death in Benares. The Lewis Henry Morgan Lectures 1988. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Prescott, C., 1991. Kulturhistoriske undersøkleser i Skrivarhelleren. Arkeologiske rapporter 14. Historisk Museum, Universitetet i Bergen. Bergen.Google Scholar
Prescott, C., 1994. Paradigm gained – paradigm lost? 150 years of Norwegian Bronze Age research. Norwegian Archaeological Review. 27 (2): 87109.Google Scholar
Prescott, C., 1995. From Stone Age to Iron Age: a Study from Sogn, Western Norway. International Series S603. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.Google Scholar
Ross, T., 1879. Indberetning om arkeologisk undersøgelser i Fjelberg, foretagne sommeren 1879. AB 1879:159168.Google Scholar
Rygh, O., 1877. Om den yngre jernalder i Norge. Aarbøger for nordisk oldkyndighet og historie: 101194. Kristiania.Google Scholar
Rygh, O., 1885. Norske Oldsakger. Christiania: Alb. Cammermeyer, Centraltrykkeriet.Google Scholar
Rygh, O., 1906. En gravplads fra broncealderen. Dei kgl. norske videnskabers selskabs skrifter 1. Trondheim: Aktietrykkeriet.Google Scholar
Saetersdal, T., 1995. Behind the Mask. . Department of Archaeology, University of Bergen. Saxo Grammaticus. Translated by Wienkel Horn. Reprinted in 1985. Copenhagen: Peter Asschenfeldt's Bogklubb.Google Scholar
Schetelig, H., 1905. Bergens Museums Aarbog 1905. 14. Bergen.Google Scholar
Schetelig, H., 1906, Ship Burials. London: Saga Book of the Viking Club.Google Scholar
Schetelig, H., 1912. Vestlandske graver: fra jernalderen. Bergens Museums skrifter. Ny række. Bd. II(I). Bergen: A/S John Griegs Boktrykkeri.Google Scholar
Shetelig, H., 1925. Norges forhistorie. Problemer og resultater i norsk arkæologi. Oslo: Instituttet for sammenlignende kulturforskning.Google Scholar
Strahern, A., 1981. Death as exchange: two Melanesian cases. In Humphreys, S.C. and King, H. (eds), Mortality and Immortality: the Anthropology and Archaeology of Death: 205224. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Sverdrup, G., 1933. Fra gravskikk til dødstro i nordisk bronsealder. Skrifter utgitt av Det norske Videnskaps-Akademi i Oslo IL Hist.-Filos. Klasse 1933. No. 4. Oslo: Jacob Dybwad.Google Scholar
Tacitus, 1997[AD 69]. The Histories. Translated by Fyfe, W.H., revised and edited by Levene, D.S. The World's Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Turner, V., 1967. The Forest of Symbols. New York: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Turner, V., 1969. The Ritual Process. New York: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
van Gennep, A., 1960. Rites de Passage. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Vitebsky, P., 1993. Dialogues with the Dead. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Whaley, J., 1981. Introduction. In Whaley, J. (ed.), Mirrors of Mortality: 114. London: Europe Publications Limited.Google Scholar