Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dlnhk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T03:55:29.345Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Archaeology, science-based archaeology and the Mediterranean Bronze Age metals trade

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 January 2017

A. Bernard Knapp
A. Bernard Knapp*
Affiliation:
Department of Archaeology, University of Glasgow
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Archaeologists often seem either sceptical of science-based archaeology or baffled by its results. The underpinnings of science-based archaeology may conflict with social or behavioural factors unsuited to quantification and grouping procedures. Thus, the interaction between archaeologists and their science-based colleagues has been less profitable than it might have been. The main point I consider in this study, and exemplify by considering metals provenance studies in the Bronze Age Mediterranean, is the relevance and application of the stated aims of science-based archaeology to the contemporary discipline of archaeology. Whereas most practitioners today recognize that science-based archaeology has the potential to contribute positively to the resolution of problems stemming from our field's inadequate and incomplete data resource, I contend that science and scientific analyses alone cannot adjudicate between cultural possibilities. Rather they provide analytical data which are likely to be open-ended, subject to multiple social interpretations, and in need of evaluation by collaborating archaeologists using social theory.

Il semble souvent qu'une archéométrie laisse les archéologues sceptiques ou deconcertés par ses résultats. Les fondations d'une archéométrie scientifique ont parfois du mal à accomoder les facteurs sociaux ou de comportement qui ne se prêtent que difficilement à une analyse quantitative et aux procédés de groupement. C'est pourquoi l'interaction entre les archéologues et leurs collègues à orientation scientifique a été moins profitable qu'elle n'aurait pu l'être. Cette étude a pour but principal l'étude de l'application des principes d'une archéométrie à la discipline contemporaine de l'archéologie et utilise comme example les études sur la provenance des métaux dans l'âge du bronze méditerranéen. La plupart des professionels aujourd'hui reconnaissent qu'une archéométrie peut contribuer de façon positive à la résolution de problèmes dont l'origine se situe dans la nature souvent incomplète et inadéquate des données de notre discipline. Je soutiens, cependant, que la science et les analyses scientifiques seules ne peuvent décider entre les différentes possibilités culturelles. Ce qui est en fait produit sont des données analytiques qui débouchent bien souvent sur de multiples interpretations sociales et qui doivent faire l'objet d'évaluation grâce à la collaboration d'archéologues qui utilisent une théorie sociale.

Zusammenfassung

Zusammenfassung

Archäologen scheinen der naturwissenschaftlichen Archäologie oft entweder skeptisch gegenüber zu stehen oder von ihren Ergebnissen verblüfft zu sein. Die Unterstützung einer auf Naturwissenschaften basierenden Archäologie kann in Konflikt geraten mit sozialen und Verhaltensfaktoren, die Verfahren der Quantifizierung und Gruppenbildung entgegenstehen. Deshalb war die Interaktion zwischen Archäologen und ihren naturwissenschaftlichen Kollegen weniger ertragreich als sie hätte sein können. Der wesentlichste Punkt, den ich in dieser Studie betrachte und beispielhaft untersuche an Forschungen zur Herkunftsbestimmung von Metall der mediterranen Bronzezeit, ist die Relevanz und Anwendung von expliziten Zielen der naturwissenschaftlichen Archäologie für die gegenwärtige Disziplin Archäologie. Während die meisten Wissenschaftler heute erkennen, dass die auf Naturwissenschaften basierende Archäologie das Potenzial hat, positiv zur Auflösung von Problemen beizutragen, die aus den inadäquaten und unvollständigen Datenressourcen unserer Disziplin herrühren, behaupte ich, dass Naturwissenschaft und naturwissenschaftliche Analysen allein nicht zwischen verschiedenen kulturellen Möglichkeitenentscheiden können. Sie liefern eher analytische Daten, die sehr wahrscheinlich offen bleiben, verschiedenartigen sozialen Interpretationen dienen können, und einer Bewertung durch mitarbeitende Archäologen bedürfen, die soziale Theorien anwenden.

Keywords

commodification of metalsCypruslead isotope analysisMediterranean Bronze Agemetals traderecyclingSardiniascience-based archaeologysocial theory
Type
Articles
Information
European Journal of Archaeology , Volume 3 , Issue 1 , 2000 , pp. 31 - 56
Copyright
Copyright © 2000 Sage Publications 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Appadurai, A., 1986. Toward an anthropology of things. In Appadurai, A. (ed.), The Social Life of Things: 3–63. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Artzy, M., 1994. Incense, camels and collared rim jars: desert trade routes and maritime outlets in the second millennium. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 13:121–147.Google Scholar
Balmuth, M.S. and Tylecote, R.F., 1976. Ancient copper and bronze in Sardinia: excavations and analysis. Journal of Field Archaeology 3:195–201.Google Scholar
Balthazar, J.W., 1990. Copper and Bronze Working in Early through Middle Bronze Age Cyprus. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology and Literature, Pocketbook 84. Göteborg: P. Åström's Förlag.Google Scholar
Barnes, I.L., Brill, R.H., Deal, E.C. and Piercy, G.V., 1986. Lead isotope studies of some of the finds from the Serce Liman shipwreck. In Olin, J.S. and Blackman, M.J. (eds), Proceedings of the 24th International Archaeometry Symposium: 1–12. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute.Google Scholar
Barnes, I.L., Chase, W.T., Holmes, L.L., Joel, E.C., Meyers, P. and Sayre, E.V., 1988. The technical examination, lead isotope determination, and elemental analysis of some Shang and Zhou Dynasty bronze vessels. In Maddin, R. (ed.), The Beginnings and Use of Metals and Alloys: 296–306. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Bass, G.F., 1967. Cape Gelidonya: A Bronze Age Shipwreck. Transactions of American Philosophical Society 57.8. Philadelphia, PA: American Philosophical Society.Google Scholar
Bass, G.F., 1991. Evidence of trade from Bronze Age shipwrecks. In Gale, N.H. (ed.), Bronze Age Trade in the Mediterranean. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 90:69–82. Göteborg: P. Åström's Förlag.Google Scholar
Bass, G.F., Pulak, C., Collon, D. and Weinstein, J., 1989. The Bronze Age shipwreck at Ulu Burun: 1986 campaign. American Journal of Archaeology 93:1–29.Google Scholar
Baxter, M.J. and Gale, N.H., 1998. Testing for multivariate normality via univariate tests: a case study using lead isotope ratio data. Journal of Applied Statistics 25:671–683.Google Scholar
Begemann, F., Schmitt-Strecker, S. and Pernicka, E., 1989. Isotopic composition of Pb in early metal artifacts: results, possibilities and limitations. In Hauptmann, A., Pemicka, E. and Wagner, G.A. (eds), Old World Archaeometallurgy. Der Anschnitt, Beiheft 8:269–278. Bochum: Deutsches Bergbaumuseum.Google Scholar
Budd, P. and Taylor, T., 1995. The faerie smith meets the bronze industry: magic versus science in the interpretation of prehistoric metal-making. World Archaeology 27:133–143.Google Scholar
Budd, P., Gale, D., Pollard, A.M., Thomas, R.G. and Williams, P.A., 1993. Evaluating lead isotope data: further observations. Archaeometry 35:241–246, 262–263.Google Scholar
Budd, P., Haggerty, R., Pollard, A.M., Scaife, B. and Thomas, R.G., 1996. Rethinking the quest for provenance. Antiquity 70:168–174.Google Scholar
Budd, P., Pollard, A.M., Scaife, B. and Thomas, R.G., 1995. Oxhide ingots, recycling, and the Mediterranean metals trade. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 8:1–32.Google Scholar
Cherry, J.F. and Knapp, A.B., 1991. Quantitative provenance studies and Bronze Age trade in the Mediterranean: some preliminary reflections. In Gale, N.H. (ed.), Bronze Age Trade in the Mediterranean. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 90:92–119. Göteborg: P. Åström's Förlag.Google Scholar
Chippindale, C., 1994. Editorial. Antiquity 68/258:1–7.Google Scholar
Demirchi, S., Özer, A.M. and Summers, G.D. eds, 1996. Archaeometry 94. The Proceedings of the 29th International Symposium on Archaeometry. Ankara: Türkiye Bilimsel ve Teknik Arastirma Kurumu.Google Scholar
Dobres, M.-A., and Hoffman, C.R., 1994. Social agency and the dynamics of prehistoric technology. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 1:211–258.Google Scholar
Dunnell, R., 1992. Is a scientific archaeology possible? In Embree, L. (ed.), Metaarchaeology: Reflections by Archaeologists and Philosophers: 75–97. Dordrecht: Kluwer.Google Scholar
Dunnell, R. 1993. Why archaeologists don't care about archaeometry. Archeomaterials 7:161–165.Google Scholar
Fahrquhar, R., and Vitali, V., 1989. Lead isotope measurements and their application to Roman lead and bronze artifacts from Carthage. In Fleming, S.J. and Schenck, H.R. (eds), MASCA Research Papers in Science and Archaeology 6:39–45. Philadelphia, PA: MASCA, University Museum.Google Scholar
Gale, N.H. 1989a. Lead isotope analyses applied to provenance studies: a brief review. In Maniatis, Y. (ed.), Archaeometry: Proceedings of the 25th International Symposium: 469–502. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Gale, N.H., 1989b. Archaeometallurgical studies of late Bronze Age oxhide copper ingots from the Mediterranean region. In Hauptmann, A., Pernicka, E., and Wagner, G.A. (eds), Old World Archaeometallurgy. Der Anschnitt, Beiheft 7:247–268. Bochum: Deutsches Bergbau-Museum.Google Scholar
Gale, N.H. ed., 1991a. Bronze Age Trade in the Mediterranean. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 90. Göteborg: P. Åström's Förlag.Google Scholar
Gale, N.H., 1991b. Copper oxhide ingots: their origin and their place in the Bronze Age metals trade in the Mediterranean. In Gale, N.H. (ed.), Bronze Age Trade in the Mediterranean. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 90:197–239. Göteborg: P. Åström's Förlag.Google Scholar
Gale, N.H. and Stos-Gale, S., 1982a. Bronze and copper sources in the Mediterranean: a new approach. Science 216:11–19.Google Scholar
Gale, N.H. and Stos-Gale, S., 1982b. Lead and silver in the ancient Aegean. Scientific American 244(6):176–192.Google Scholar
Gale, N.H. and Stos-Gale, S., 1987. Oxhide ingots from Sardinia, Crete and Cyprus and the Bronze Age copper trade: new scientific evidence. In Balmuth, M.S. (ed.), Studies in Sardinian Archaeology 3: Nuragic Sardinia and the Mycenaean World. British Archaeological Reports International Series 387:135–178. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.Google Scholar
Gale, N.H. and Stos-Gale, S., 1992. Evaluating lead isotope data: comments 1. Archaeometry 34:311–317.Google Scholar
Gale, N.H. and Stos-Gale, S., 1995. Comment on 'Oxhide ingots, recycling, and the Mediterranean metals trade’. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 8:33–41.Google Scholar
Gale, N.H., Stos-Gale, Z.A., Maliotis, G. and Annetts, N., 1997. Lead isotope data from the Isotrace Laboratory: Oxford. Archaeometry data base 4, ores from Cyprus. Archaeometry 39:237–245.Google Scholar
Given, M., Knapp, A.B., Meyer, N., Gregory, T.E., Kassianidou, V., Noller, J., Wells, L., Urwin, N. and Wrigirr, H., 1999. The Sydney Cyprus Survey Project: an interdisciplinary investigation of long-term change in the north central Troodos, Cyprus. Journal of Field Archaeology 26:19–39.Google Scholar
Hall, M., 1995. Comments on ‘Oxhide ingots, recycling, and the Mediterranean metals trade’. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 8:42–44.Google Scholar
Hodder, I.A., 1991. Interpretive archaeology and its role. American Antiquity 56:7–18.Google Scholar
Hosler, D. and Macfarlane, A., 1996. Copper sources, metal production, and metals trade in late Postclassic Mesoamerica. Science 273 (27 Sept):1819–1824.Google Scholar
Jones, R.E., 1986. Greek and Cypriot Pottery: A Review of Scientific Studies. British School at Athens, Fitch Laboratory, Occasional Paper 1. Athens: British School at Athens.Google Scholar
Jones, R.F.J., 1988. Questions, answers and the consumer in archaeological science. In Slater, E.A. and Tate, J.O (eds), Science and Archaeology, Glasgow 1987. British Archaeological Reports, British Series 196(i):1–7. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.Google Scholar
Karageorghis, V. and Kassianidou, V., 1999. Metalworking and recycling in late Bronze Age Cyprus - the evidence from Kition. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 18:171–188.Google Scholar
Kassianidou, V. and Wright, H.G., 1996. SCSP 1995: Agrokipia-Kriadis mine (Unit 2013) and Mitsero-Sykamies slag heap (Unit 2009). In A.B. Knapp and M. Given, The Sydney Cyprus Survey Project (SCSP) - third season (1995). Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus: 316–323.Google Scholar
Keswani, P.S., 1993. Models of local exchange in late Bronze Age Cyprus. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 292:73–83.Google Scholar
Keswani, P.S., and Knapp, A.B., 1997. Bronze Age boundaries and social exchange in northwest Cyprus. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Schools of Oriental Research, Napa, CA (18 November 1997).Google Scholar
Killick, D., 1992. Review of J. Henderson (ed.), Scientific Analysis in Archaeology. Oxford University Committee for Archaeology, Monograph 19 (Oxbow Books, Oxford: 1989). In Journal of Field Archaeology 19:117–121.Google Scholar
Killick, D. and Young, S.M.M., 1997. Archaeology and archaeometry: from casual dating to a meaningful relationship? Antiquity 71/273:518–524.Google Scholar
Kintigh, K.W., 1987. Quantitative methods designed for archaeological problems. In Aldenderfer, M. (ed.), Quantitative Research in Archaeology: Progress and Prospects: 126–134. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Knapp, A.B., 1986. Copper Production and Divine Protection: Archaeology, Ideology and Social Complexity on Bronze Agr, Cyprus. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology, Pocketbook 42. Göteborg: P. Åström's Förlag.Google Scholar
Knapp, A.B., 1988. Hoards D'Oeuvres: of metals and men on Bronze Age Cyprus. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 7:147–176.Google Scholar
Knapp, A.B., 1990. Entrepreneurship, ethnicity, exchange: Mediterranean inter-island relations in the late Bronze Age. Annual of the British School at Athens 85:115–153.Google Scholar
Knapp, A.B., 1993. Thalassocracies in Bronze Age eastern Mediterranean trade: making and breaking a myth. World Archaeology 24:332–347.Google Scholar
Knapp, A.B., 1996. Archaeology without gravity: postmodernism and the past. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 3:127–158.Google Scholar
Knapp, A.B., 1997. The Archaeology of Late Bronze Age Cypriot Society: The Study of Settlement, Survey and Landscape. Department of Archaeology, University of Glasgow, Occasional Paper 4. Glasgow.Google Scholar
Knapp, A.B. and Cherry, J.F., 1991. Archaeological science, statistics, and cultural solutions: trade patterns in the Bronze Age eastern Mediterranean. In Pernicka, E. and Wagner, G.A. (eds), Archaeometry 90: 183–198. Basel: Birkhäuser Verlag.Google Scholar
Knapp, A.B., and Cherry, J.F., 1994. Provenance Studies and Bronze Age Cyprus: Production, Exchange, and Politico-Economic Change. Monographs in World Archaeology 21. Madison, WI: Prehistory Press.Google Scholar
Knapp, A.B., Donnelly, M. and Kassianidou, L., 1998. Excavations at Politiko Phorades – 1997. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus: 247–268.Google Scholar
Knapp, A.B., Kassianidou, L. and Donnelly, M., 1999. Excavations at Politiko Phorades – 1998. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus: (in press).Google Scholar
Knapp, A.B., Muhly, J.D. and Muhly, P.M., 1988. To hoard is human: the metal deposits of LC IIC-LC Ill. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus: 233–262.Google Scholar
Knapp, A.B., Pigott, V. and Herbert, E. eds, 1998. Social Approaches to an Industrial Past: The Archaeology and Anthropology of Mining. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Lavender, D., 1962. The Story of Cyprus Mines Corporation. San Marino, CA: Huntington Library.Google Scholar
Lightfoot, K.G., 1995 Culture contact studies: redefining the relationship between prehistoric and historical archaeology. American Antiquity 60:199–217.Google Scholar
Liverani, M. (trans. Jaffe, M.I.), 1979. Irrational elements in the Amarna trade. Monographs on the Ancient Near East 1(5):21–33. Malibu: Undena.Google Scholar
Liverani, M., 1986. La ceramica e i testi: commercio miceneo e politica orientale. In Marazzi, M., Tusa, S. and Vagnetti, L. (eds), Traffici Micenei nel Mediterraneo: 405–412. Taranto: Istituto per la storia e l'archeologia. della Magna Grecia.Google Scholar
Lo Schiavo, F., 1981. Economia e societa nell'eta dei nuraghi. In Atzeni, E., Barreca, F., Ferrarese-Ceruti, M.L., Contu, E., Lilliu, G., Lo Schiavo, F., Nicosia, F., and Equini Schneider, E. (eds), Ichnussa: La Sardegna dall' Origini all'Eta Classica: 255–347. Milano: Garzanti.Google Scholar
Lo Schiavo, F., 1989. Early metallurgy in Sardinia: copper ox-hide ingots. In Hauptmann, A., Pernicka, E., and Wagner, G.A. (eds), Old World Archaeometallurgy. Der Anschnitt, Beiheft 7:33–38. Bochum: Deutsches Bergbau-Museums.Google Scholar
Lo Schiavo, F., 1998. Sardinian oxhide ingots 1998. In Rehren, T., Hauptmann, A. and Muhly, J. D. (eds), Metallurgica Antigua: In Honour of Hans-Gert Bachmann and Robert Maddin. Der Anschnitt, Beiheft 8:99–112. Bochum: Deutsches Bergbau-Museums.Google Scholar
Lo Schiavo, F., Maddin, R., Merkel, J., Muhly, J.D. and Stech, T., 1990. Metallographic and Statistical Analyses of Copper Ingots from Sardinia. Ministero per i Beni Culturali e Ambientali, Soprintendenza ai Beni Archaeologici per le Province de Sassari e Nuoro, Quaderni 17. Ozieri: Torchietto.Google Scholar
Lo Schiavo, F., Stech, T., Maddin, R. and Muhly, J.D. 1987. Nuragic metallurgy in Sardinia; second preliminary report. In Balmuth, M.S. (ed.), Studies in Sardinian Archaeology 3. BAR International Series 387:179–187. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.Google Scholar
Mcgovern, P.E., 1995. Science in archaeology: a review. American Journal of Archaeology 99:79–142.Google Scholar
Maddin, R., 1988. Technical studies - early use of metals. In Sayre, E.V., Vandiver, P., Druzik, J., and Stevenson, C. (eds), Materials Issues in Art and Archaeology. Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings 123:171–181. Pittsburgh, PA: Materials Research Society.Google Scholar
Maddin, R, 1989. The copper and tin ingots from the Kas shipwreck. In Hauptmann, A., Pemicka, E. and Wagner, G.A. (eds), Old World Archaeometallurgy. Der Anschnitt, Beiheft 7:99–105. Bochum: Deutsches Bergbau-Museums.Google Scholar
Muhly, J.D., 1977. The copper ox-hide ingots and the Bronze Age metals trade. Iraq 39:73–82.Google Scholar
Muhly, J.D., 1985a. Lead isotope analysis and the problem of lead in Cyprus. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus: 78–82.Google Scholar
Muhly, J.D., 1985b. The Late Bronze Age in Cyprus: a 25 year retrospect. In Karageorghis, V. (ed.), Archaeology in Cyprus 1960–1985: 20–46. Nicosia: Leventis Foundation.Google Scholar
Muhly, J.D., 1989. The organisation of the copper industry in late Bronze Age Cyprus. In Peltenburg, E.J. (ed.), Early Society in Cyprus: 298–314. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar
Muhly, J.D., 1991. The development of copper metallurgy in late Bronze Age Cyprus. In Gale, N.H. (ed.), Bronze Age Trade in the Mediterranean. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 90:180–196. Göteborg: P. Åström's Förlag.Google Scholar
Muhly, J.D., 1995. Lead isotope analysis and the archaeologists. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 8:54–58.Google Scholar
Muhly, J.D., 1998. Metals and metallurgy: using modern technology to study ancient technology. In Ancient Greek Technology: Proceedings of the First International Conference on Ancient Greek Technology (Thessaloniki, 4–7 Sept. 1997): 27–33. Thessaloniki: Technology Museum.Google Scholar
Muhly, J.D. and Stech, T., 1990. Final observations. In Lo Schiavo, F. et al., Metallographic and Statistical Analyses of Copper Ingots from Sardinia. Ministero per i Beni Culturali e Ambientali, Soprintendenza ai Beni Archaeologici per le Province de Sassari e Nuoro, Quaderni 17:201–221. Ozieri: Torchietto.Google Scholar
Muhly, J.D., Maddin, R. and Karageorghis, V. eds, 1982. Acta of the International Archaeological Symposium: Early Metallurgy in Cyprus, 4000-500 BC. Nicosia: Pierides Foundation.Google Scholar
Muhly, J.D., Maddin, R and Stech, T., 1988. Cyprus, Crete and Sardinia: copper oxhide ingots and the metals trade. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus: 281–298.Google Scholar
Needham, S.P., Leese, M.N., Hook, D.R. and Hughes, M.J., 1989. Developments in the early Bronze Age metallurgy of southern Britain. World Archaeology 20:383–402.Google Scholar
Olin, J. ed., 1982. Future Directions in Archaeometry: A Round Table. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institute Press.Google Scholar
Pernicka, E., 1987. Erzlagerstätten in der Ägäis unde ihre Ausbeutung im Altertum: geochemische Untersuchungen zur Herkunftsbestimmung archäologischer Metallobjekte. Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum 34:607–713.Google Scholar
Pernicka, E., 1995. Crisis or catharsis in lead isotope analysis? Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 8:59–64.Google Scholar
Pernicka, E., Begemann, F., Schmitt-Strecker, S. and Grimanis, A.P., 1990. On the composition and provenance of metal artifacts from Poliochni on Lemnos. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 9:263–298.Google Scholar
Pernicka, E., Selliger, T.C., Wagner, GA., Begeman, F., Schmitt-Strecker, S., Eibner, S., Oztunali, O. and Baranyi, I., 1984. Archaeometallurgische Untersuchungen in Nordwestanatolien. Jahrbuch der Römisch-Germanischen Zentral-museums 31:533–599.Google Scholar
Pollard, A.M., 1983. A critical study of multivariate methods as applied to provenance data. In Aspinall, A. and Warren, S.E. (eds), Proceedings of the 22nd Archaeometry Symposium: 56–66. Bradford: University of Bradford.Google Scholar
Pollard, A.M. ed., 1992. New Developments in Archaeological Science. Proceedings of the British Academy 77. London: British Academy.Google Scholar
Pollard, A.M., 1995. Why teach Heisenberg to archaeologists? Antiquity 69/263:242–247.Google Scholar
Preucel, R.W., 1991. Introduction. In Preucel, R.W. (ed.), Processual and Postprocessual Archaeologies: Multiple Ways of Knowing the Past. Center for Archaeological Investigations Occasional Paper 10:1–14. Carbondale, IL: Center for Archaeological Investigation.Google Scholar
Preucel, R.W., 1995. The postprocessual condition. Journal of Archaeological Research 3:147–175.Google Scholar
Pulak, C., 1995. Das Schiffswrack von Uluburun. Zaberns Bildbände zur Archäologie 23:43–58.Google Scholar
Pulak, C., 1997. The Uluburun shipwreck. In Swiny, S., Hohlfelder, R. and Helena, W. Swiny (eds), Res Maritimae: Cyprus and the Eastern Mediterranean from Prehistory through the Roman Period. Cyprus American Archaeological Research Institute, Monograph 1:233–262. Atlanta, GA: ASOR/Scholars Press.Google Scholar
Read, D.W., 1989. Intuitive typology and automatic classification: divergence or full circle? Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 8:158–188.Google Scholar
Reedy, C.L. and Reedy, T.J., 1988. Lead isotope analysis for provenance studies in the Aegean region: a re-evaluation. In Sayre, E.V., Vandiver, P.B., Druzik, J. and Stevenson, C. (eds) Materials Issues in Art and Archaeology. Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings 123:65–70. Pittsburgh, PA: Materials Research Society.Google Scholar
Renfrew, A.C., 1986. Varna and the emergence of wealth in prehistoric Europe. In Appadurai, A. (ed.), The Social Life of Things: 141–168. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Renfrew, A.C., 1992. Meeting summary: the identity and future of archaeological science. In Pollard, A. M. (ed.), New Developments in Archaeological Science. Proceedings of the British Academy 77:285–293. London: British Academy.Google Scholar
Sayre, E.V., Yener, K.A., Joel, E.C. and Barnes, I.L., 1992. Statistical evaluation of the presently accumulated lead isotope data from Anatolia and the surrounding regions. Archaeometry 34:73–105.Google Scholar
Sayre, E.V., Yener, K.A. and Joel, E.C., 1995. Comments on ‘Oxhide ingots, recycling, and the Mediterranean metals trade’. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 8:45–53.Google Scholar
Scaife, B., Budd, P., Mcdonnell, J.G., Pollard, A.M. and Thomas, R.G., 1996. A reappraisal of statistical techniques used in lead isotope analysis. In Demirici, S., Özer, A.M. and Summers, G.D. (eds), Archaeometry 94. The Proceedings of the 29th International Symposium on Archaeometry: 301–307. Ankara: TBITAK.Google Scholar
Schiffer, M.B., 1996. Some relationships between behavioral and evolutionary archaeologies. American Antiquity 61:643–662.Google Scholar
Seeliger, T.C., Pernicka, E., Wagner, G.A., Begemann, F., Schmitt-Strecker, S., Eibner, C., Öztunali, O. and Baranyi, I., 1985. Archaometallurgische Untersuchungen in Nord- und Ostanatolien. Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmusuems 32:597–659.Google Scholar
Shanks, M. and Hodder, I.A., 1995. Processual, postprocessual and interpretive archaeologies. In Hodder, I., Shanks, M., Alexandri, A., Buchli, V., Carman, J., Last, J. and Lucas, G. (eds), Interpreting Archaeology: Finding Meaning in the Past: 3–29. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Shanks, M. and Mcguire, R.H., 1996. The craft of archaeology. American Antiquity 61:75–88.Google Scholar
Sherratt, A.G., 1994. Core, periphery and margin: perspectives on the Bronze Age. In Stoddart, S. and Mathers, C. (eds), Development and Decline in the Bronze Age Mediterranean. Sheffield Archaeological Monograph 8:335–345. Sheffield: J.R. Collis Publications.Google Scholar
Sherratt, A.G. and Sherratt, E.S., 1991. From luxuries to commodities: the nature of Mediterranean Bronze Age trading systems. In Gale, N.H.(ed.), Bronze Age Trade in the Mediterranean. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 90:351–386. Göteborg: P. Åström's Förlag.Google Scholar
Sherratt, S., 1998. ‘Sea Peoples’ and the economic structure of the late second millennium in the eastern Mediterranean. In Gitin, S., Mazar, A. and Stern, E. (eds), Mediterranean Peoples in Transition: Thirteenth to Tenth Centuries BCE: 292–313. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society.Google Scholar
Sherratt, S., 1999. E pur si muove: pots, markets and values in the second millennium Mediterranean. In Crielaard, J.P., Stissi, V. and van Wijngaarden, G.J. (eds), The Complex Past of Pottery: Production, Circulation and Consumption of Mycenaean and Greek Pottery: 163–211. Amsterdam: Gieben.Google Scholar
Smith, J.S., 1992–1993. The Pylos JN series. Minos 227–228:167–259.Google Scholar
South, A.K., 1989. From copper to kingship: aspects of Bronze Age society viewed from the Vasilikos Valley. In Peltenburg, E.J. (ed.), Early Society in Cyprus: 315–324. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar
Stech, T., 1982. Urban metallurgy in late Bronze Age Cyprus. In Muhly, J.D., Maddin, R., and Karageorghis, V. (eds), Early Metallurgy in Cyprus, 4000-500 BC: 105–115. Nicosia: Pierides Foundation.Google Scholar
Stos-Gale, ZA. and Gale, N.H., 1994. Metals. In Knapp, A.B. and Cherry, J.F. (eds), Provenance Studies and Bronze Age Cyprus: Production, Exchange, and Politico-Economic Change. Monographs in World Archaeology 21:92–121. Madison, WI: Prehistory Press.Google Scholar
Stos-Gale, Z.A., Maliotis, G., Gale, N.H. and Annetts, N., 1997. Lead isotope characteristics of the Cyprus copper ore deposits applied to provenance studies of copper oxhide ingots. Archaeometry 39:83–123.Google Scholar
Thomas, N., 1991. Entangled Objects: Exchange, Material Culture, and Colonialism in the Pacific. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Toulmin, S., 1977. From form to function: philosophy and history of science in the 1950s and now. Daedalus 106(3):143–162.Google Scholar
Trigger, B.G., 1988. Archaeology's relations with the physical and biological sciences: a historical review. In Fahquhar, R.M., Hancock, R.G.V., and Pavlish, L.A. (eds), Proceedings of the 26th International Archaeometry Symposium: 1–9. Toronto: Archaeometry Laboratory, Physics Department, University of Toronto.Google Scholar
Trigger, B.G., 1991. Post-processual developments in Anglo-American archaeology. Norwegian Archaeological Review 24(2):65–76.Google Scholar
Tylecotte, R.F., Balmuni, M.S. and Massoli-Novelli, R., 1984. Copper and bronze metallurgy in Sardinia. In Balmuth, M. (ed.), Studies in Sardinian Archaeology 1:115–162. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Vaughan, S.J., 1995. Observations from an Aegean perspective on the relationship of archaeology and science as reflected in the study of ancient pottery. In Morris, C. and Peatfield, A. (eds), Klados: Essays in honour of J.N. Coldstream. Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies, Supplement 63:261–270. London: Institute of Classical Studies.Google Scholar
Webb, J.M. and Frankel, D., 1994. Making an impression: storage and surplus finance in late Bronze Age Cyprus, Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 7:5–26.Google Scholar
Young, S.M.M., Pollard, A.M., Budd, P. and Ixer, R.A. eds, 1999. Metals in Antiquity. British Archaeological Reports, International Series 792. Oxford: Archaeopress.Google Scholar
Zaccagnini, C., 1986. Aspects of copper trade in the eastern Mediterranean during the late Bronze Age. In Marazzi, M., Tusa, S. and Vagnetti, L. (eds), Traffici Micenei nel Mediterraneo: Problemi Storici e Documentazione Archeologica. Magna Grecia 3:413–424. Taranto: Istituto per la storia e l'archeologia della Magna Grecia.Google Scholar