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Fragmentation of the International Humanitarian Order? Understanding “Cultures of Humanitarianism” in East Asia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 December 2014

Jacinta O'Hagan  and
Miwa Hirono
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Extract

There is an ever-growing demand in the world for humanitarian action in response to the suffering caused by complex emergencies and natural disasters. Part of the power and appeal of humanitarianism is its universality, that is, the idea that humanitarianism is premised on cross-cultural moral truths and principles and a concern for the alleviation of suffering of humankind, regardless of differences. This idea of universality, however, is being called into question as expressions of humanitarianism and humanitarian actors become increasingly diverse. While Western states and organizations have long dominated the international humanitarian order (IHO), this is no longer the case today, with non-Western governments and societies becoming increasingly important and visible contributors to international humanitarian assistance. At the same time, these new IHO players are contributing to a broader range of perceptions of what constitutes legitimate humanitarianism; and while the concern for the suffering of others may be universal, it is clear that the response to suffering may differ across cultures.

Type
Essay
Information
Ethics & International Affairs , Volume 28 , Issue 4 , Winter 2014 , pp. 409 - 424
Copyright
Copyright © Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs 2014 

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References

NOTES

1 The definition of culture we use in this essay is drawn from the work of Bhikhu Parekh, who defines culture as “a historically created system of meaning and significance or, what comes to the same thing, a system of beliefs and practices in terms of which human beings understand, regulate and structure their individual and collective lives.” Parekh, Bhikhu, Rethinking Multiculturalism: Cultural Diversity and Political Theory (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000)Google Scholar, p. 143. We do not seek to privilege the state as the necessary locus of culture, nor do we assume that cultures and cultural perspectives are homogeneous or necessarily bounded by state frontiers. Rather, we use states as sites at which to sample perspectives and practices within the region, including those relating to conceptions of moral obligations and the locus of moral responsibility.

2 Davey, Eleanor, New Players through Old Lessons: Why History Matters in Engaging Southern Actors, HPG Policy Brief 48 (London: Overseas Development Institute, 2012)Google Scholar.

3 See, for instance, OCHA's moves to strengthen dialogue with member states and regional organizations and its support for the Dialogue on Humanitarian Partnership, an initiative led by Sweden and Brazil. OCHA, OCHA Annual Report 2011 (Geneva: Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, 2012)Google Scholar, pp. 6, 28; Jean-François Berger, “Iran: Dialogue on Islam and International Humanitarian Law in Qom,” ICRC Resource Centre, December 1, 2006, www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/event/ihl-islam-event-011206.htm; interviews with ICRC officials, Geneva, June 2012; UNHCR High Commissioner's Dialogue on Protection Challenges, 2012: Faith and Protection, Geneva, December 12–13, 2012, accessed October 05, 2014, www.unhcr.org/pages/501a39ce6.html.

4 Barnett, Michael, The International Humanitarian Order (New York & Abingdon: Routledge, 2010)Google Scholar, p. 1.

5 Alex Whiting, “New Donors Chip Away at Aid Industry Status Quo,” Thomson Reuters Foundation, January 26, 2012, www.trust.org/alertnet/news/new-donors-chip-away-at-aid-industry-status-quo.

6 OCHA, “Financial Tracking Service: Tracking Global Humanitarian Aid Flows,” 2012, accessed April 17, 2014, www.fts.unocha.org.

7 Andrea Binder, Claudia Meier, and Julia Steets, “Humanitarian Assistance: Truly Universal?,” GPPi Research Paper No. 12, August 2010, p. 14. See also Meier and C.S.R. Murthy, “India's Growing Involvement in Humanitarian Assistance,” GPPi Research Paper No. 13, March 2011.

8 Oliver Buston and Kerry Smith, “Global Humanitarian Assistance Report 2013,” Bristol: Development Initiatives, p. 22, www.globalhumanitarianassistance.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/GHA-Report-2013.pdf.

9 Government of Timor-Leste, IV Constitutional Government, Secretariat of State of the Council of Ministers, “Council of Ministers Extraordinary Meeting of March 12, 2011—Dispatch of a Support Team to Japan,” Press Release, March 12, 2011, timor-leste.gov.tl/?p = 4705&lang = en.

10 Hiroko Inoue, “‘In an Act of Solidarity and Fraternity’: Timor-Leste's Reciprocal Humanitarianism,” paper contributed to the “Cultures of Humanitarianism: Perspectives from the Asia-Pacific” project, April 2013, The Australian National University and the Institute of Asia and Pacific Studies at the University of Nottingham, p.1, www.nottingham.ac.uk/iaps/documents/project/inoue.pdf.

11 Barnett et al., “Religion and Humanitarianism: Floating Boundaries in a Globalizing World,” Conference Report: Religion, Secularism, and Humanitarianism: Exploring Differences, Boundaries, and Connections, October 10–11, 2009, Graduate Institute of International Studies, Geneva, Switzerland, p. 11. See also Latief, Hilman, “Islam and Humanitarian Affairs: The Middle Class and New Patterns of Social Action,” in Djik, Kees van and Burhanuuddin, Jajat, eds., Islam in Indonesia: Contrasting Images and Interpretations (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University, 2012)Google Scholar, pp. 173–194, p. 188.

12 Sarah Teitt, “Atrocity or Calamity?,” paper contributed to the “Cultures of Humanitarianism: Perspectives from the Asia-Pacific” project, April 2012, The Australian National University and the Institute of Asia and Pacific Studies at the University of Nottingham, www.nottingham.ac.uk/iaps/documents/project/teitt.pdf.

13 Non-Western donors have, however, had significant involvement in regional forums and cooperative mechanisms, such as the 2010 ASEAN Agreement on Disaster Management and Emergency Response, and the ASEAN Coordinating Centre for Humanitarian Assistance on Disaster Management. Other illustrations include “The Dialogue on Humanitarian Partnership,” which was launched by Sweden and Brazil in 2011, and the “Hope For” initiative, launched by Qatar, Turkey, and the Dominican Republic in 2011 to discuss the enhancement of coordination of military and civilian-defense resources in natural disasters.

14 Osa, Yukie, “The Growing Role of NGOs in Disaster Relief and Humanitarian Assistance in East Asia,” in Sukma, Rizal and Gannon, James, eds., A Growing Force: Civil Society's Role in Asian Regional Security (Tokyo: Japan Center for International Exchange, 2013)Google Scholar, pp. 66–89, p. 73.

15 Binder, Andrea and Meier, Claudia, “Opportunity Knocks: Why Non-Western Donors Enter Humanitarianism and How to Make the Best of It,” International Review of the Red Cross 93, no. 884 (2011), pp. 1135–49CrossRefGoogle Scholar, p. 1147.

16 Yukie Osa, “Seeking Japanese Conceptions of Humanitarianism,” paper contributed to the “Cultures of Humanitarianism: Perspectives from the Asia-Pacific” project, October 2012, The Australian National University and the Institute of Asia and Pacific Studies at the University of Nottingham, www.nottingham.ac.uk/iaps/documents/project/osa.pdf.

17 Hirono, “Three Legacies of Humanitarianism in China”; Teitt, “Atrocity or Calamity?”; Hirono, Miwa, “China's Conception of Assistance in Disaster Areas,” in Hirono, Miwa and O'Hagan, Jacinta, eds., Cultures of Humanitarianism: Perspectives from the Asia-Pacific, Keynotes 11 (Canberra: Department of International Relations, Australian National University, 2012)Google Scholar, p. 25. See also Yeophantong, Pichamon, Understanding Humanitarian Action in East and Southeast Asia: A Historical Perspective, HPG Working Paper (London: Overseas Development Institute, 2014)Google Scholar.

18 Yukie Osa notes that in the post–Second World War period, the scope of the kan has been extended to include the United Nations and the Japanese Red Cross Society (JRCS). This is reflected in the strong support provided to UN agencies and the JRCS by the Japanese public. Osa, “Seeking Japanese Conceptions of Humanitarianism,” p. 4.

19 Cited in Teitt, “Atrocity or Calamity?,” p. 7. As Teitt further notes, the PLA's status as a “people's army” serves to blur the line between military and citizen action, helping to legitimize the role of the army in humanitarian relief. Teitt, “Atrocity or Calamity?,” p. 5.

20 Nishikawa, Yukiko, Japan's Changing Role in Humanitarian Crises (New York: Routledge, 2005)Google Scholar; Osa, “Disaster Relief and Humanitarian Assistance.”

21 Latief, “Islam and Humanitarian Affairs,” p. 191.

22 Donini et al. , Humanitarian Agenda 2015: Principles, Power, and Perceptions (Medford, Mass.: Tufts University, Feinstein International Center, 2006)Google Scholar, p. 17.

23 Jayasuriya, Sisira and McCawley, Peter, The Asian Tsunami: Aid and Reconstruction After a Disaster (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tsunami Evaluation Coalition (TEC), Joint Evaluation of the International Response to the Indian Ocean Tsunami: Synthesis Report (London: TEC supported by ALNAP, 2006)Google Scholar, p. 91; Kusumasari, Bevaola, “Network Organization in Supporting Post-Disaster Management in Indonesia,” International Journal of Emergency Services 1, no. 1 (2012), pp. 71–85CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

24 Inoue, “In an Act of Solidarity and Fraternity”; Harvey, Paul et al. , The State of the Humanitarian System: Assessing Performance and Progress (London: ALNAP, Overseas Development Institute, 2010)Google Scholar.

25 Sigit Riyanto, “Challenges and Hopes for Humanitarian Operations in Indonesia,” in Hirono and O'Hagan, eds., Cultures of Humanitarianism, p. 33.

26 Osa, “Seeking Japanese Conceptions of Humanitarianism,” p. 2.

27 Kleine-Ahlbrandt, Stephanie and Small, Andrew, “China's New Dictatorship Diplomacy: Is Beijing Parting with Pariahs?,” Foreign Affairs 87, no. 1 (2008), pp. 38–56;Google Scholar A Japanese expert in ODA also noted in a Japanese government meeting that “Japan should be fully aware of the fact that it has a special foreign policy card that none of the other countries have, which is Overseas Development Assistance,” in which humanitarian assistance is included. Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “A Discussion Session with Experts on Revision of the General Framework of ODA [ODA taiko minaoshi ni kansuru yushikisha kondankai],” p. 7, accessed September 16, 2014, www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/gaiko/oda/about/kaikaku/taikou_minaoshi/files/k02_gijiyoushi.pdf.

28 See Osa, “Seeking Japanese Conceptions of Humanitarianism”; Teitt, “Atrocity or Calamity?”; Hirono, “Three Legacies of Humanitarianism in China”; Inoue, “In an Act of Solidarity and Fraternity.” Also see Latief, “Islam and Humanitarian Affairs” on solidarism and social activism as an aspect of Islamic humanitarianism in Indonesia.

29 Harmer, Adele and Cotterrell, Lin, Diversity in Donorship, HPG Research Report 20 (London: Overseas Development Institute, 2005)Google Scholar; Masood Hyder, “Humanitarianism and the Muslim World,” Journal of Humanitarian Assistance, August 22, 2007.

30 Petersen, Marie Juul, “Islamizing Aid: Transnational Muslim NGOs after 9.11,” Voluntas, vol. 23 (2012), pp.126–155CrossRefGoogle Scholar, p. 133.

31 Masood Hyder, in “Humanitarianism and the Muslim World,” further notes that 50 percent of World Food Programme aid goes to beneficiaries in Muslim countries.

32 For instance, the case for a more encompassing conception of zakat and sadaqah was made by Teten Kustiawan, director of operations for the state-mandated Badan Amil Zakat Nasional (National Amil Agency). He argued that while the victims of disaster do not strictly fall within the categories of recipients, zakat and sadaqah can be legitimately distributed in disaster relief to prevent victims of disaster falling into poverty. “BAZNAS Ringankan Korban Bencana [BAZNAS Helps Disaster Victims],” Republika, January 20, 2014, www.republika.co.id/berita/koran/news-update/14/01/19/mznoyf-baznas-ringankan-korban-bencana.

33 Ismail Yaylaci, “Communitarian Humanitarianism: The Politics of Islamic Humanitarian Organizations,” paper presented at the workshop “Religion and Humanitarianism,” American University in Cairo, June 3–5, 2008; Atin Prabandari, “Islamic Humanitarianism and the International Humanitarian Order,” unpublished master's thesis, Graduate Studies in International Affairs, Australian National University, 2010; Marie Juul Petersen, “Islamizing Aid: Transnational Muslim NGOs after 9.11,” p. 147.

34 Harmer and Cotterrell, “Diversity in Donorship”; Binder and Meier, “Opportunity Knocks.”

35 Yeophantong, Understanding Humanitarian Action in East and Southeast Asia, p. 7.

36 Hirono, Miwa and Lanteigne, Marc, “Introduction: China and UN Peacekeeping,” International Peacekeeping 18, no. 3 (2011), pp. 243–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

37 More specifically, Ethiopia received $23 million, and Kenya $20 million (respectively, 26.8% and 23.2% of China's entire humanitarian assistance of 2011); Zimbabwe $14 million (51.5% of 2012); Syria $3 million (67% in 2013); and Syria $3.9 million (41.4% in 2014). “Financial Tracking Service: Tracking Global Humanitarian Aid Flows,” 2014, accessed September 16, 2014, fts.unocha.org.

38 More specifically, Afghanistan received $145.8 million, Sudan $41.5 million, and Somalia $39.7 million (respectively, 23.9%, 6.8%, and 6.5% of Japan's entire humanitarian assistance of 2011); Afghanistan $108.1 million, Sudan $53.6 million, and Somalia $43.7 million (respectively, 16.4%, 8.1%, and 6.6% of 2012); Syria $144.3 million, Afghanistan $77.1 million, and South Sudan $57.5 million (respectively, 14.9%, 8%, and 5.9% of 2013); and Syria $141.4 million, the Philippines $63.3 million, and Afghanistan $45.8 million (respectively, 17.2%, 7.7%, and 5.6% of 2014). “Financial Tracking Service: Tracking Global Humanitarian Aid Flows,” 2014, accessed October 1, 2014, fts.unocha.org.

39 A complex emergency is defined by the Inter-Agency Standing Committee as “a humanitarian crisis in a country, region, or society where there is total or considerable breakdown of authority resulting from internal or external conflict and which requires an international response that goes beyond the mandate or capacity of any single agency and/or the ongoing United Nations country programme.” Relief Web, “Glossary of Humanitarian Terms,” draft version, August 2008, p. 18, www.who.int/hac/about/reliefweb-aug2008.pdf?ua=1.

40 Similarly, China's assistance to conflict-riven Aceh in the wake of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami focused solely on post-tsunami assistance and did not extend to post-conflict reconstruction. For its part, the Indonesian government was more willing to accept assistance in the wake of international disaster than in the context of conflict. Hirono, Miwa, “Another ‘Complementarity’ in Sino-Australian Security Cooperation,” Contemporary International Relations 21, no. 3 (2011), pp. 103–36Google Scholar.

41 Teitt, “Atrocity or Calamity,” p. 7; Information Office of the State Council, The People's Republic of China, “The Diversified Employment of China's Armed Forces,” April 2013, accessed May 8, 2014, eng.mod.gov.cn/Database/WhitePapers/.

42 United Nations Security Council, document S/2014/348, accessed September 16, 2014, www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/2014/348.