Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rcrh6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T04:28:20.210Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The influence of air pollution on Thoroughbred race performance

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 May 2007

Maureen C Gates
Maureen C Gates*
Affiliation:
School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
Get access

Abstract

This study examined the changing levels of air pollution at major racetracks in the United States over the past 35 years of Grade I Stakes Thoroughbred racing (n = 675) to evaluate the impact on race performance. Information on winning race times, race speed, temperature, track conditions, ozone and particulate matter was analysed using multiple regression and ANOVA. The 8, 9 and 12 furlong races showed slight improvement in winning times over the 35-year time span. Although there was no significant difference in mean race speed in terms of particulate matter (F4,112 = 0.514, α < 0.05), the few races run under ‘hazardous’ ozone levels, based on the Pollutants Standards Index, were markedly slower (F4,251 = 12.365, α < 0.05). A multiple regression analysis of six additional pollutants in the Californian races revealed no significant effects beyond a slight improvement in the 7 furlong races, with decreased nitrogen dioxide levels. Of the nine racetracks with 9 furlong races, winning times in Pimlico and Belmont were approximately 4 s slower than average. Belmont also had the greatest percentage of races with hazardous ozone conditions. Other correlations between year, pollutants and improvements in race time were of small magnitude and may be an artefact of the sample size rather than of true predictive value. While racing under high levels of certain pollutants appears detrimental to equine athletes, very few races are run under these conditions and other factors such as breeding, training and individual variation may play a more significant role than this study could document with respect to pollution.

Keywords

pollutionThoroughbredsrace performance
Type
Research Paper
Information
Equine and Comparative Exercise Physiology , Volume 4 , Issue 2 , May 2007 , pp. 79 - 88
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2007

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1AirNow. Air quality index. Environmental Protection Agency [online]. 2005 [cited 2005 Jun 5]. Available from: URL: http://cfpub.epa.gov/airnow/index.cfm?action=static.aqi.Google Scholar
2Air Resources Board Air quality data statistics. Welcome to California[online]. (n.d.) [cited 2006 Feb 20]. Available from: URL:http://www.arb.ca.gov/adam/welcome.html.Google Scholar
3American Lung Association Press Fact Sheet. [online]. (n.d) [cited 2005 Oct 5]. Available from: URL: www.lungsusa.org.Google Scholar
4Bailey, K (1994). Methods of social research. Toronto, Canada: Maxwell Macmillan.Google Scholar
5Bernmark, E, et al. (2006). Bicycle messengers: energy expenditure and exposure to air pollution. Ergonomics 49(14): 1486–1495.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
6Carlisle, AJ and Sharp, NC (2001). Exercise and outdoor ambient air pollution. British Journal of Sports Medicine 35(4): 214–222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
7Corradi, M, Alinovi, R and Goldoni, M (2002). Biomarkers of oxidative stress after controlled human exposure to ozone. Toxicology Letters 134(1–3): 219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
8Davis, M, Foster, W. Inhalation toxicology in the equine respiratory tract. In P, Lekeux (ed.) Equine respiratory diseases. Ithaca: New York International Veterinary Information Service [online]. 2002 Feb2 [cited 2005 Sep 20]. Available from: URL: http://www.ivis.org/special_books/Lekeux/davis/ivis.pdf.Google Scholar
9Derevenco, P, Albu, M and Duma, E (2002–2003). Forecasting of top athletic performance. Romanian Journal of Physiology 39: 57–62.Google ScholarPubMed
10Draper, SB and Wood, DM (2005). The oxygen uptake response of sprint vs. endurance trained runners to severe intensity running. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport 8(2): 233–243.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
11Environmental Protection Agency Air quality data [online]. 2005 [cited 2005 Sep 20]. Available from: URL: (http://www.epa.gov/air/data/index.html).Google Scholar
12Environmental Protection Agency. The plain English guide to the Clean Air Act [online]. 1993 [cited 2006 Feb 27]. Available from: URL: http://www.epa.gov/oar/oaqps/peg_caa/pegcaain.html#index.Google Scholar
13Equibase Company Homepage: Offical Source for Racing Information. 2004 Grades stakes [online]. 2004 [cited 2005 Oct 5] Available from: URL: http://www.equibase.com/products/2004gradedstakes.cfm.Google Scholar
14Fecht, JCalifornian cities head national pollution table [online]. City Mayors environment: American lung association 2005 [cited 2006 Mar 18]. Available from: URL: http://www.citymayors.com/environment/polluted_uscities.html.Google Scholar
15Florida-James, G, Donaldson, K and Stone, V (2004). Athens: the pollution climate and athletic performance. Journal of Sports Science 22(10): 967–980.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
16Focosi, D. Sports medicine [online]. 2005 [cited 2005 Dec 20]. Available from: URL: http://focosi.immunesig.org/sportsmedicine.html.Google Scholar
17Galan, A, et al. , (2003). Short-term effects of air pollution on daily asthma emergency room admissions. European Respiratory Journal 2: 802–803.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
18Gauderman, E, et al. The effect of air pollution on lung development from 10 to 18 years of age. New England Journal of Medicine [serial online] 2004 Sep 9 [cited 2005 Sep 20]. Available from: URL: http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/short/351/11/1057.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
19Holcombe, SJ, Jackson, C, Gerber, V, Jefcoat, A, Berney, C, Eberhardt, S and Robinson, NE (2001). Stabling is associated with airway inflammation in young Arabian horses. Equine Veterinary Journal 33(3): 244–249.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
20Huck, S, et al. (1974). Reading statistics and research. New York: Harper and Row.Google Scholar
21Information Superbrand, Inc. The stakes races. TurfPedia: the Horse Racing Encyclopedia [online] 2002 [cited 2005 Sep 20]. Available from: URL: http://www.turfpedia.com/playing_the_races/the_stakes_races.html.Google Scholar
22Jaeger, R (1990). Statistics: a spectator sport. London: SAGE Publicaitons.Google Scholar
23Kinney, PL and Lippmann, M (2000). Respiratory effects of seasonal exposures to ozone and particles. Archives of Environmental Health 55(3): 210–216.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
24Marlin, CJ, Schroter, RC, White, SL, Maykuth, P, Matthesen, G, Mills, PC, Warran, N and Harris, P (2001). Recovery from transport and acclimatisation of competition horses in a hot humid environment. Equine Veterinary Journal 33(4): 371–379.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
25Marlin, CJ, Scott, CM, Schroter, RC, Harris, RC, Harris, PA, Roberts, CA and Mills, PC (1999). Physiological responses of horses to a treadmill simulated speed and endurance test in high heat and humidity before and after humid heat acclimation. Equine Veterinary Journal 31(1): 31–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
26McConnell, A. Air pollution sports: the real problem facing the organizers of the Athens Olympics [online]. 2004 [cited 2005 Oct 10]. Available from: URL:http://www.pponline.co.uk/encyc/air-pollution-sports.html.Google Scholar
27Mills, PC, Roberts, CA and Smith, NC (1996). Effect of ozone and airway inflammation on glutathione status and iron homeostasis in the lungs of horses. American Journal of Veterinary Research 57(9): 1359–1363.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
28Mudway, IS, Krishna, MT and Frew, AJ (1999). Compromised concentrations of ascorbate in fluid lining the respiratory tract in human subjects after exposure to ozone. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 56(7): 473–481.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
29Neher, JO and Koenig, JQ (1994). Health effects of outdoor air pollution. American Family Physician 49(6): 1397–1404.Google ScholarPubMed
30Nevill, A and Whyte, G (2005). Are there limits to running world records. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 37(10): 1785–1788.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
31Newman, JREffects of industrial air pollution on wildlife. Biological Conservation [serial online] 1979 [2006 Jan 26]; 15(3):181–190 Available from: Science Direct Database..CrossRefGoogle Scholar
32Peters, JM, Avol, E, Gauderman, WJ, et al. (1997). A study of twelve southern California communities with differing levels and types of air pollution II: effects on pulmonary function. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 159: 768–775.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
33Pierson, E, et al. (1986). Implication of air pollution effects on athletic performance. Journal of Sports Science 18(3): 322–327.Google ScholarPubMed
34Samet, J, et al. Fine particulate air pollution and mortality in 20 US cities, 1987–1994. New England Journal of Medicine [serial online] 2000 Dec 14 [cited 2005 Jun 7]. Available from: URL: http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/abstractt/343/24/1742.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
35RAG. Air pollution reduces athletic performance. Occupational and Environmental Medicine [serial online] 1999 [cited 2005 Jun 8]; 56:535–538 Available from: URL: http://www.rag.org.au/barb/yahoo3899.htm.Google Scholar
36Rigas, ML, Ben-Jebria, A and Ultman, JS (1997). Longitudinal distribution of ozone absorpton in the lung: effects of nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and ozone exposures. Archives of Environmental Health 52(3): 173–178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
37Tabachnick, B and Fidell, L (1989). Using multivariate statistics. New York: Harper and Row.Google Scholar
38Thurston, G, Lippmann, M, Scott, MB and Fine, JM. Summertime haze air pollution and children with asthma. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 1997; 155: 654–660.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
39US Environmental Protection Agency About the PSI Chart. Retrieved October 15, 2005 fromhttp://www.epa.gov/air/data/help/hpsi.html?co~24005~Baltimore%20co%2c%20Maryland#aqi 2005.Google Scholar
40Witte, R and Witte, J (2004). Statistics. 7th edn. New York: John Wiley and Sons.Google Scholar