Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-g7gxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-05T05:32:26.320Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Looking for adolescents' well-being: self-efficacy beliefs as determinants of positive thinking and happiness

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 May 2011

Gian Vittorio Caprara ,
Patrizia Steca ,
Maria Gerbino ,
Marinella Paciello  and
Giovanni Maria Vecchio
Gian Vittorio Caprara*
Affiliation:
University of Rome, “La Sapienza”, Roma (Italy)
Patrizia Steca
Affiliation:
University of Milano, “Bicocca”, Milano (Italy)
Maria Gerbino
Affiliation:
University of Rome, “La Sapienza”, Roma (Italy)
Marinella Paciello
Affiliation:
University of Rome, “La Sapienza”, Roma (Italy)
Giovanni Maria Vecchio
Affiliation:
University of Rome, “La Sapienza”, Roma (Italy)
*
Address for correspondence: Professor G.V. Caprara, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, 2 University of Rome “La Sapienza”, Via dei Marsi 78, 00185 Rome (Italy). Fax: +39-06-4469.115 E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Summary

Aims – The present study is part of a longitudinal project aimed at identifying the personal characteristics and the developmental pathways conducive to successful adaptation from childhood to adulthood. The study examined the concurrent and longitudinal impact of self-efficacy beliefs on subjective well-being in adolescence, namely positive thinking and happiness. Positive thinking has been operationalized as the latent dimension underlying life satisfaction, self-esteem and optimism. Happiness has been operationalized as the difference between positive and negative affects, as they are experienced in a variety of daily situations. Methods – In a group of 664 Italian adolescents, a structural model positing adolescents' emotional and interpersonal self-efficacy beliefs as proximal and distal determinants of positive thinking and happiness has been tested. Results – Findings attest to the impact of affective and interpersonal-social self-efficacy beliefs on positive thinking and happiness both concurrently and longitudinally. Conclusions – Adolescents' self-efficacy beliefs to manage positive and negative emotions and interpersonal relationships contribute to promote positive expectations about the future, to mantain a high self-concept, to perceive a sense of satisfaction for the life and to experience more positive emotions.

Declaration of Interest: none.

Keywords

self-efficacypositive psychologywell-beinglongitudinal study
Type
Special Articles
Information
Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences , Volume 15 , Issue 1 , March 2006 , pp. 30 - 43
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2006

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Andrews, F.M. & Withey, S. B. (1976). Social Indicators of Well-being: America's Perception of Life Quality. Plenum Press: New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arnett, J.J. (2001). Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: a Cultural Approach. Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, NJ.Google Scholar
Ashby, F.G., Isen, A.M. & Turken, A.U. (1999). A neuropsychological theory of positive affect and its influence on cognition. Psychological Review 106, 529–550.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aspinwall, L.G. (1998). Rethinking the role of positive affect in self-regulation. Motivation and Emotion 22, 1–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aspinwall, L.G. (2001). Dealing with adversity: Self-regulation, coping, adaptation, and health. In Blackwell Handbook of Social Psychology: Intraindividual Processes (ed. Tesser, A. and Schwarz, N.), pp. 591–614. Blackwell Publishers: Maiden, MA.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bandura, A. (ed.) (1995). Self-efficacy in Changing Societies. Cambridge University Press: New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: the Exercise of Control. Freeman: New York.Google Scholar
Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. Annual Review of Psychology 52, 1–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bandura, A., Barbaranelli, C., Caprara, G.V. & Pastorelli, C. (1996). Multifaceted impact of self-efficacy beliefs on academic functioning. Child Development 67, 1206–1222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bandura, A., Pastorelli, C., Barbaranelli, C. & Caprara, G.V. (1999). Self-efficacy pathways to childhood depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 76, 258–269.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bandura, A., Barbaranelli, C., Caprara, G.V. & Pastorelli, C. (2001a). Self-efficacy beliefs as shapers of children's aspirations and career trajectories. Child Development 72, 187–206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bandura, A., Barbaranelli, C., Caprara, G. V., Pastorelli, C. & Regalia, C. (2001b). Sociocognitive self-regulatory mechanisms governing transgressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 80, 125–135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bandura, A., Caprara, G. V., Barbaranelli, C., Gerbino, M. & Pastorelli, C. (2003). Role of affective self-regulatory efficacy on diverse spheres of psychosocial functioning. Child Development 74, 769–782.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barnes, M.L. & Sternberg, R.J. (1997). A hierarchical model of love and its prediction of satisfaction in close relationships. In Satisfaction in Close Relationships (ed. Sternberg, R.L. and Hojjat, M. ), pp. 79–101. Guilford: New York.Google Scholar
Battistich, V., Solomon, D. & Delucchi, K. (1993). Interaction processes and student outcomes in cooperative learning groups. Elementary School Journals, 19–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baumeister, R.F. (ed.) (1993). Self-esteem: the Puzzle of Low Self-Regard. Plenum: New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beck, A. T. (1976). Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders. New American Library: New York.Google Scholar
Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive Therapy of Depression. Guilford: New York.Google Scholar
Beck, A. T., Epstein, N. & Harrison, R. (1983). Cognitions, attitudes, and personality dimensions in depression. British Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy 1, 1–16.Google Scholar
Bentler, P.M. (2001). EQS Structural Equations Program Manual. Multivariate Software, Inc.: Encino, CA.Google Scholar
Ben-Zur, H., Rappaport, B., Ammar, R. & Uretzky, G. (2000). Coping strategies, life style changes, and pessimism after open-hearth surgery. Health, Society and Work 25, 201–209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berry, D.S. & Willigham, J.S. (1997). Affective traits, responses to conflict, and satisfaction in romantic relationships. Journal of Research in Personality 71, 796–809.Google Scholar
Bower, J. E., Kemeny, M. E., Taylor, S. E. & Fahey, J. L. (1998). Cognitive processing, discovery of meaning, CD4 decline, and AIDS-related mortality among bereaved HIV-seropositive mean. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 66, 979–986.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowles, T. (1999). Focusing on time orientation to explain adolescent self concept and academic achievement: Part II. Testing a model. Journal of Applied Health Behaviour 1, 1–8.Google Scholar
Bradburn, N. M. (1969). The Structure of Psychological Weil-Being. Aldine: Chicago.Google Scholar
Brody, J. E. (1997). Girls and puberty: the crisis years. New York Times, p. C9.Google Scholar
Byrne, B. (1994). Testing the factorial validity, replication, and invariance of a measuring instrument: A paradigmatic application based on the Maslach Burnout Inventory. Multivariate Behavioral Research 29, 289–311.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cairns, R. & Cairns, B. (1994). Lifelines and Risks: Pathways of Youth in Our Time. Cambridge University Press: New York.Google Scholar
Campbell, A. (1981). The Sense of Well-Being in America: Recent Patterns and Trends. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Campbell, A., Converse, P.E. & Rodgers, W.L. (1976). The Quality of American Life: Perceptions, Evaluations, and Satisfactions. Russell Sage Foundation: New York.Google Scholar
Caprara, G.V. (2002). Personality Psychology: Filling the gap between basic processes and molar functioning. In Psychology at the Turn of the Millennium: Volume 2. Social, Developmental and Clinical Perspectives (ed. von Hofsten, C. and Bakman, L.), pp. 201–224. Psychology Press: Brighton, UK.Google Scholar
Caprara, G.V. & Gerbino, M. (2001). Autoefficacia Emotiva Percepita: la capacità di regolare l'affettività negativa e di esprimere quella positiva (Affective perceived self-efficacy: the capacity to regulate negative affect and to express positive affect). In La Valutazione dell'Autoefficacia (Self-efficacy Assessment) (ed. Caprara, G.V.), pp. 35–50. Edizioni Erickson: Trento.Google Scholar
Caprara, G.V. & Steca, P. (2005a). Self-efficacy beliefs as determinants of prosocial behavior conducive to life satisfaction across ages. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 24, 191–217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caprara, G. V. & Steca, P. (2005b). Affective and social self-regulatory efficacy beliefs as determinants of positive thinking and happiness. European Psychologist 4, 275–286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caprara, G.V. & Steca, P. (in press). The contribution of self-regulatory efficacy beliefs in managing affect and family relationships to positivity and hedonic balance. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology.Google Scholar
Caprara, G. V. & Steca, P. (submitted for publication). Conceptualization and assessment of positive thinking.Google Scholar
Caprara, G.V., Scabini, E., Barbaranelli, C., Pastorelli, C., Regalia, C. & Bandura, A. (1998). Impact of adolescents' perceived self-regulatory efficacy on familial communication and antisocial conduct. European Psychologist 3, 125–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caprara, G.V., Scabini, E., Barbaranelli, C., Pastorelli, C., Regalia, C. & Bandura, A. (1999). Autoefficacia percepita emotiva e interpersonale e buon funzionamento sociale (Affective and interpersonal perceived self-efficacy and positive social functioning). Giornale Italiano di Psicologia 4, 769–789.Google Scholar
Caprara, G.V., Gerbino, M. & Delle Fratte, A. (2001a Autoefficacia Interpersonale (Interpersonal self-efficacy). In La Valutazione dell 'Autoefficacia (Self-Efficacy Assessment) (ed. Caprara, G.V.), pp. 87–104. Edizioni Erickson: Trento.Google Scholar
Caprara, G.V., Regalia, C. & Scabini, E. (2001b. Autoefficacia familiare (Familiar self-efficacy). In La Valutazione dell'Autoefficacia (Self-Efficacy Assessment) (ed. Caprara, G.V.), pp. 63–86. Edizioni Erickson: Trento.Google Scholar
Caprara, G.V., Delle Fratte, A. & Steca, P. (2002a). Determinanti personali del benessere in adolescenza: Indicatori e predittori (Personal determinants of adolescents' well-being: indicators and predictors). Psicologia Clinica dello Sviluppo 2, 203–223.Google Scholar
Caprara, G. V., Regalia, C. & Bandura, A. (2002b). Longitudinal impact of perceived self regulatory efficacy on violent conduct. European Psychologist 7, 63–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caprara, G.V., Scabini, E. & Sgritta, G. (2003a). The long transition to adulthood. In International Perspective on Adolescence (ed. Pajares, F. and Urdan, ), p. 71–99. Information Age Publishing: Greenwich, CT.Google Scholar
Caprara, G.V., Steca, P., Cervone, D. & Artistico, D. (2003b). The contribution of self-efficacy beliefs to dispositional shyness: On social-cognitive systems and the development of personality dispositions. Journal of Personality 71, 943–970.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caprara, G. V., Steca, P., Capanna, C. & Caprara, M. (2004a). Le determinanti personali dell'Ego-resiliency negli adolescenti (Personal determinants of adolescents' ego-resiliency). Età Evolutiva 77, 17–29.Google Scholar
Caprara, G.V., Regalia, C., Scabini, E., Barbaranelli, C. & Bandura, A. (2004b). Assessment of filial, parental, marital, and Collective family efficacy beliefs. European Journal of Psychological Assessment 20, 247–261.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caprara, G.V., Capanna, C., Steca, P. & Padello, M. (2005a). Misura e determinanti personali della prosocialità. Un approccio sociale cognitivo (Measurement and personal determinants of prosocialness. A social-cognitive approach). Giornale Italiano di Psicologia 32, 287–307.Google Scholar
Caprara, G.V., Pastorelli, C., Regalia, C., Scabini, E. & Bandura, A. (2005b). Impact of adolescents' filial self-efficacy on quality of family functioning and satisfaction. Journal of Research on Adolescence 15, 71–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carstensen, L.L., Gottman, J. M. & Levenson, R. W. (1995). Emotional behavior in long-term marriage. Psychology and Aging 10, 140–149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carvajal, S.C., Clair, S.D., Nash, S.G. & Evans, R.I. (1998b). Relating optimism, hope and self-esteem to social influences in deterring substance use in adolescent. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 17, 443–465.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carvajal, S.C., Garner, R.L. & Evans, R.I. (1998a). Dispositional optimism as protective factor in resisting HIV exposure in sexually active inner-city minority adolescents. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 28, 2196–2211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carver, C. S. & Scheier, M. F. (2002). Optimism. In Handbook of Positive Psychology (ed. Snyder, C.R. and Lopez, J.L., pp. 231–243. Oxford University Press: New York.Google Scholar
Carver, C.S., Pozo, C., Harris, S. D., Noriega, V., Scheier, M.F., Robinson, D.S., Ketcham, A.S., Moffat, F.L. & Clark, K.C. (1993). How coping mediates the effects of optimism and distress: A study of women with early stage breast cancer. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65, 375–390.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coe, C.L. & Lubach, G.R. (2001). Social context and other psychological influences on the development of immunity. In Emotion, Social Relationships, and Health (ed. Ryff, C.D. and Singer, B.H.), pp. 243–261. Oxford University Press: London.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Compas, B., Hinden, B & Gerhardt, C. (1995). Adolescent development: Pathways and processes of risk and resilience. Annual Review of Psychology 46, 265–293.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cunningham, M.R. (1988). What do you do when you're happy or blue? Mood, expectancies, and behavioral interests. Motivation and Emotion 12, 309–331.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, J. & Brember, I. (1999). Reading and mathematics attainments and self-esteem in years 2 and 6- an eight-year cross-sectional study. Educational Studies 25, 145–157.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin 95, 542–575.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diener, E. (1994). Assessing subjective well-being: Progress and opportunities. Social Indicators Research 31, 103–157.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being: the science of happiness, and a proposal for a national index. American Psychologist 55, 34–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diener, E. (2001). Subjective well-being. Address presented at the Annual meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, San Antonio, TX.Google Scholar
Diener, E. & Diener, M. (1995). Cross-cultural correlates of life satisfaction and self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68, 653–663.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diener, E. & Emmons, R. A. (1984). The independence of positive and negative affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 47, 1105–1117.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J. & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment 49, 71–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diener, E., Smith, H. & Fujita, F. (1995). The personality structure of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69, 130–141.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diener, E., Suh, E.M., Lucas, R.E. & Smith, H. (1999). Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress. Psychological Bulletin 125, 276–303.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diener, E., Lucas, R. E. & Oishi, S. (2002). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and life satisfaction. In Handbook of Positive Psychology (ed. Snyder, C.R. and Lopez, S.J.), pp. 63–73. Oxford University Press: New York.Google Scholar
Emmons, R.A. (1999). The Psychology of Ultimate Concerns: Motivation and Spirituality in Personality. Guilford Press: New York.Google Scholar
Emmons, R.A. (2003). Personal goals, life meaning, and virtue: will springs of a positive life. In Flourishing: A Positive Psychology and the Life Well-Lived (ed. Keyes, L.M. and Haidt, J.), pp. 105–128. American Psychological Association: Whashington, DC.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Estrada, C.A., Isen, A.M. & Young, M.J. (1997). Positive affect facilitates integration of information and decreases anchoring in reasoning among physicians. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 72, 117–135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Field, T., Lang, C., Yando, R. & Bendell, D. (1995). Adolescents' intimacy with parents and friends. Adolescence 30, 133–140.Google ScholarPubMed
Flammer, A. (1995). Developmental analysis of control beliefs. In Self-Efficacy in Changing Societies (ed. Bandura, A.), pp. 69–113. Cambridge University Press: New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fraser-Smith, N., Lesperance, F. & Talajic, M. (1995). The impact of negative emotions on prognosis following myocardial infarction: Is it more than depression? Health Psychology 14, 388–398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fredrickson, B.L. (1998). What good are positive emotions. Review of General Psychology 2, 271–299.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fredrickson, B.L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist 56, 218–226.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fredrickson, B.L. & Branigan, C. A. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought-action repertoires. Cognition and Emotion 19, 313–332.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fredrickson, B.L. & Joiner, T. (2002). Positive emotions trigger upward spirals toward emotional well-being. Psychological Science 13, 172–175.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Furstenberg, F.F., Eccles, J., Elder, G.H., Cook, T. & Sameroff, A. (1999). Adolescent Development in Urban Communities: How Families Manage Risk and Opportunity. University of Chicago Press: Chicago.Google Scholar
Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., Pyszczynski, T., Rosenblatt, A., Burling, J., Lyon, D., Simon, L. & Pinel, E. (1992). Why do people need self-esteem? Converging evidence that self-esteem serves an anxiety-buffering function. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63, 913–922.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harding, S.D. (1982). Psychological well-being in Great Britain.' an evaluation of the Bradburn affect balance scale. Personality and Individual Differences 3, 167–175.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harter, S. (1993). Causes and consequences of low self esteem in children and adolescents. In Self-Esteem: The Puzzle of Low Self Regard (ed. Baumeister, R.F.), pp. 87–116. Plenum: New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harter, S. (1999). The Construction of Self: A Developmental Perspective. Guilford: New York.Google Scholar
Hendrick, S.S. & Hendrick, C. (1997). Love and satisfaction. In Satisfaction in Close Relationships (ed. Sternberg, R.J. and Hojjat, M.), pp. 56–78. Guilford Press: New York.Google Scholar
Herman-Stahl, M. & Peterson, A.C. (1996). The protective role of coping and social resources for depressive symptoms among young adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescent 25, 733–753.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartfield, E. & Rapson, R.L. (1993). Love, Sex, and Intimacy. Harper Collins: New York.Google Scholar
Hinde, R. A. (1997). Relationships: A Dialectical Perspective. Psychology Press: Howe, UK.Google Scholar
Isen, A.M. (1987). Positive affect, cognitive processes, and social behavior. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 20, 203–253.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Isen, A.M. (2002). A role for neuropsychology in understanding the facilitating influence of positive affect on social behavior and cognitive processes. In Handbook of Positive Psychology (ed. Snyder, C.R. and Lopez, S.L.), pp. 528–540. Oxford University Press: New York.Google Scholar
Kawachi, I., Sparrow, D., Vokonas, P. & Weiss, S. (1994). Symptoms of anxiety and risk of coronary heart disease. Circulation 89, 1992–1997.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keltner, D. & Kring, A. (1998). Emotion, social function, and psychopatology. Review of General Psychology 2, 320–342.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kernis, M. (1995). Efficacy, Agency, and Self-Esteem. Plenum: New York.Google Scholar
Kling, K.C., Hide, J.S., Showers, C.J. & Buswell, B.N. (1999). Gender differences in self-esteem: A meta-analisys. Psychological Bulletin 12, 470–500.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lasko, D.S., Field, T.M., Gonzalez, K.P., Harding, J., Yando, R. & Bendell, D. (1996). Adolescent depressed mood and parental unhappiness. Adolescence 31, 49–57.Google ScholarPubMed
Little, B.R. (1989). Personal projects analysis: Trivial pursuits, magnificient obsessions, and the search for coherence. In Personality Psychology: Recent Trends and Emerging Directions (ed. Buss, D.M. and Cantor, N.), pp. 15–31. Springer: New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lucas, R.E., Diener, E. & Suh, E.M. (1996). Discriminant validity of well-being measures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 71, 616–628.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lykken, D. & Tellegen, A. (1996). Happiness is a stochastic phenomenon. Psychological Science 7, 186–189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maruta, T., Colligan, R.C., Malinchoc, M. & Offord, K.P. (2000). Optimists vs. pessimist: Survival rate medical patients over a 30-year period. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 75, 140–143.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCrae, R.R. & Costa, P.T. Jr (1994). The stability of personality: Observations and evaluations. Current Direction in Psychological Science 74, 494–512.Google Scholar
Millstein, S., Petersen, A. & Nightingale, E. (eds.) (1993). Promoting the Health of Adolescents: New Directions for the Twenty-First Century. Oxford University Press: New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Myers, D.G. (1999). Close relationships and quality of life. In Well-being: The Foundations ofHedonic Psychology (ed. Kahneman, D., Diener, E. and Schwarz, N.), pp. 374–391. Russell Sage Foundation: New York.Google Scholar
Myers, D.G. (2000). The fund, friends, and faith of happy people. American Psychologist 55, 56–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Myers, D.G. & Diener, E. (1995). Who is happy? Psychological Science 6, 10–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Brien, S. J. & Conger, P. R. (1991). No time to look back: Approaching the finish line of life's course. International Journal of Aging and Human Development 33, 75–87.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peterson, C., Seligman, M.E.P., Yurko, K.H., Martin, L.R. & Friedman, H.S. (1998). Catastrophizing and untimely death. Psychological Science 9, 127–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reed, G.M., Kemeny, M.E., Taylor, S.E. & Visscher, B.R. (1999). Negative HIV-specific expectancies and AIDS-related bereavement as predictors of symptom onset in asymptomatic HIV-positive gay men. Health Psychology 13, 299–307.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reis, H.T. & Patrick, B.C. (1996). Attachment and intimacy: Component processes. In Social Psychology: Handbook of Basic Principles (ed. Higgins, E.T. and Kruglanski, A.), pp. 367–389. Wiley: Chichester.Google Scholar
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the Adolescent Self-image. Princeton University Press: Princeton, NJ.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutter, M. & Smith, D. (Eds.) (1995). Psychosocial Disorders in Young People. Wiley & Sons: Chichester, UK.Google Scholar
Scabini, E. (1995). Psicologia Sociale della Famiglia. Bollati Boringhieri: Torino.Google Scholar
Scheier, M.F. & Carver, C.S. (1985). Optimism, coping, and health: Assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies. Health Psychology 4, 219–247.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scheier, M.F. & Carver, C.S. (1987). Dispositional optimism and physical well-being: The influence of generalized outcome expectancies on health. Journal of Personality 55, 169–210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scheier, M.F. & Carver, C.S. (1992). Effects of optimism on psychological and physical well-being: Theoretical overview and empirical update. Cognitive Therapy and Research 16, 201–228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scheier, M.F. & Carver, C.S. (2001). Adapting to cancer: The importance of hope and purpose. In Psychosocial Interventions for Cancer (ed. Baum, A. and Andersen, B.L.), pp. 15–36). American Psychological Association: Washington, DC.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scheier, M.F., Matthews, K.A. & Owens, J.F. (1989). Dispositional optimism and recovery from coronary artery bypass surgery: The beneficial effects on physical and psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 57, 1024–1040.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scheier, M.F., Matthews, K. A., Owens, J.F., Magovern, G.J. & Carver, C.S. (1990). Dispositional optimism and recovery after 5 years from coronary artery bypass surgery. Manuscript not published.Google Scholar
Schimmack, U. & Diener, E. (2003). Predictive validity of explicit and implicit self-esteem for subjective well-being. Journal of Research in Personality 37, 100–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneewind, K.A. (1995). Impact of family processes on control beliefs. In Self-Efficacy in Changing Societies (ed. Bandura, A.), pp. 114–148. University of Cambridge Press: New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scott-Lennox, J.A. & Scott-Lennox, R.D. (1995). Sex-race differences in social support and depression in older low-income adults. In Structural Equation Modeling: Concepts, Issues, and Applications (ed. Hoyle, R.H.), pp. 199–216.: Sage: Thousand Oaks, CA.Google Scholar
Seeman, T.E. (2001). How do others get under your skin: Social relationships and health. In Emotion, Social Relationships, and Health (ed. Ryff, C.D. and Singer, B.), pp. 189–210. Oxford University Press: New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seligman, M.E.P. (2002). Positive psychology, positive prevention, and positive therapy. In Handbook of Positive Psychology (ed. Snyder, C.R. and Lopez, S.J.), pp. 3–9) Oxford University Press: New York.Google Scholar
Seligman, M.E.P. (2003). Foreword: The past and future of positive psychology. In Flourishing: a Positive Psychology and the Life Well-lived (ed. Keyes, L.M. and Haidt, J.), pp. XI-XX. American Psychological Association: Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Seligman, M.E.P. & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology. American Psychologist 55, 5–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheldon, K.M. & King, L. (2001). Why positive psychology is necessary? American Psychologist 56, 216–217.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steca, P. (2004). Il Benessere Soggettivo: Componenti, Correlati e Determinanti nel Corso di Vita (Subjective Well-Being: Components, Correlates, and Determinants Across the Life Span). Ph. D. Dissertation: University of Padua, Italy.Google Scholar
Steinberg, L. & Morris, A. (2001). Adolescent Development. Annual Review of Psychology 52, 83–140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sternberg, R.L. & Hojjat, M. (1997). Satisfaction in Close Relationships. Guilford: New York.Google Scholar
Tabachnick, B.G. & Fidell, L.S. (2001). Using Multivariate Statistics (Fourth Edition). Ally and Bacon: Boston.Google Scholar
Tanaka, J.S. (1993). Multifaceted conceptions of fit in structural equation models. In Testing Structural Equation Models (ed. Bollen, K.A. and Long, J.S.), pp. 10–39. Sage Publications: Newbury Park.Google Scholar
Taylor, S.E. & Armor, D.A. (1996). Positive illusions and coping with adversity. Journal of Personality 64, 873–899.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, S.E., Dickerson, S.S. & Klein, L.C. (2002). Toward a biology of social support. In Handbook of Positive Psychology (ed. Snyder, C.R. and Lopez, J.L.), pp. 556–569. Oxford University Press: New York.Google Scholar
Tedeschi, J.T. & Norman, N. (1985). Social power, self-presentation, and the self. In The Self and Social Life (ed. Schlenker, B.R.), pp. 293–322. McGraw-Hill: New York.Google Scholar
Veenhoven, R. (1991). Is happiness relative? Social Indicators Research 24, 1–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watson, D. (2000). Mood and Temperament. Guilford: New York.Google Scholar
Watson, D., Clark, L. A. & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS Scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54, 1063–1070.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watson, D., Clark, L., McIntyre, C. & Hamaker, S. (1992). Affect, personality, and social activity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63, 1011–1025.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zevon, M.A. & Tellegen, A. (1982). The structure of mood change: An idiographic/nomothetic analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 43, 111–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar