Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-hc48f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-24T00:27:13.844Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Depression: major problem for public health

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 May 2011

Eugene S. Paykel
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

The aim of this Editorial is to discuss depression as an important disorder for public health. The literature regarding epidemiology, consequences, adequacy of service delivery and prevention of depression is reviewed. Depression is a common disorder with high lifetime rates, particularly in women, and those experiencing social adversity. It is a major cause of disability, and causes death both by suicide and due to raised rates of physical disorders. Many cases are undiagnosed and treatment is often inadequate. Primary prevention is not yet easily feasible but secondary prevention by earlier recognition, public and professional education, can produce benefits. There is a need for public health programmes aimed at improving recognition, treatment, and reducing consequences.

Type
Editorials
Information
Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences , Volume 15 , Issue 1 , March 2006 , pp. 4 - 10
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2006

References

REFERENCES

Abas, M., Hotopf, M. & Prince, M. (2002). Depression and mortality in a high-risk population. 11-year follow-up of the Medical Research Council Elderly Hypertension trial. British Journal of Psychiatry 181, 123–128.Google Scholar
Andin-Sobock, P. & Wittchen, H.-U. (2005). Cost of affective disorders in Europe. European Journal of Neurology 12, Suppl. 1, 34–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alonso, J., Angermeyer, M.C., Lépine, J.P., European Study of Epidemiology of Mental Disorders (ESEMeD) project (2004). The European Study of the Epidemiology of Mental Disorders (ESEMeD) project: an epidemiological basis for informing mental health policies in Europe. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, Supplementum 420, 5–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andrade, L., Caraveo-Anduaga, J.J., Berglund, P., Bijl, R.V., De Graaf, R., Vollebergh, W., Dragomirecka, E., Kohn, R., Keller, M., Kessler, R.C., Kawakami, N., Kilic, C., Offord, D., Üstün, T.B. & Wittchen, H.-U. (2003). The epidemiology of major depressive episodes: results from the International Consortium of Psychiatrie Epidemiology (ICPE) Surveys. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatrie Research 12, 3–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ansseau, M., Dierick, M., Buntinkx, F., Cnockaert, P., De Smedt, J., Van Den Haute, M. & Vander, Mijnsbrugge D. (2004). High prevalence of mental disorders in primary care. Journal of Affective Disorders 78, 49–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Balazs, J., Lecrubier, Y., Csixzer, N., Kosztak, J. & Bitter, L. (2003). Prevalence and comorbidity of affective disorders in persons making suicide attempts in Hungary: importance of the first depressive episodes and of bipolar II diagnoses. Journal of Affective Disorders 76, 113–119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Balestrieri, M., Carta, M.G., Leonetti, S., Sebastiani, G., Starace, F. & Bellantuono, C. (2004). Recognition of depression and appropriateness of antidepressant treatment in Italian primary care. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 39, 171–176.Google ScholarPubMed
Barrick, C.B. (1999). Sad, glad, or mad hearts? Epidemiological evidence for a causal relationship between mood disorders and coronary artery disease. Journal of Affective Disorders 53, 193–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bebbington, P.E., Kats, R., McGuffin, P., Tennant, C. & Hurry, J. (1989). The risk of minor depression before age 65: results from a community survey. Psychological Medicine 19, 393–400.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bebbington, P.E., Meltzer, H., Brugha, T.S., Farrell, M., Jenkins, R., Ceresa, C., Lewis, G. (2000a). Unequal access and unmet need: neurotic disorders and the use of primary care services. Psychological Medicine 30, 1359–1367.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bebbington, P.E., Brugha, T.S., Meltzer, H., Jenkins, R., Ceresa, C. & Lewis, G. (2000b). Neurotic disorders and the use of psychiatric treatment. Psychological Medicine 30, 1369–1376.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bijl, R.V. & Ravelli, A. (2000). Psychiatric morbidity, service use and the need for care in the general population: results of the Netherlands Mental Health Survey and Incidence Study. American Journal of Public Health 90, 602–607.Google ScholarPubMed
Bower, P., Rowland, N. & Hardy, R. (2003). The clinical effectiveness of counselling in primary care: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine 33, 203–215.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowman, F.M., Goldberg, D.P., Millar, T., Gask, L. & McGrath, G. (1992). Improving the skills of established general practitioners: the long-term benefits of group teaching. Medical Education 26, 63–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brugha, T.S., Bebbington, P.D., Singleton, N., Melzer, D., Jenkins, R., Lewis, G., Farell, M., Bhugra, D., Lee, A. & Meltzer, H. (2004). Trends in service utilisation and treatment for mental disorders in adults throughout Great Britain. British Journal of Psychiatry 185, 378–384.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clarke, G.N., Hornbrook, M., Lynch, F., Polen, M., Gale, J., Beardslee, W. & O'Connor, E. (2001). A randomized trial of a group cognitive intervention for preventing depression in adolescent offspring of depressed parents. Archives of General Psychiatry 58, 1127–1134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cross-National Collaborative Group. (1992). The changing rate of major depression: cross national comparisons. Journal of the American Medical Association 268, 3098–3105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunn, T., Donoghue, J.M., Ozminkowski, R.J., Stephenson, D. & Hylan, T.R. (1999). Longitudinal patterns of antidepressant prescribing in primary care in the UK: comparison with treatment guidelines. Journal of Psychopharmacology 13, 136–143.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freeling, P., Rao, B.M., Paykel, E.S., Sireling, L.I. & Burton, R.H. (1985). Unrecognized depression in general practice. British Medical Journal 290, 1880–1883.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gask, L., Dowrick, C., Dixon, C., Sutton, C., Perry, R., Torgerson, D. & Usherwood, T. (2004). A pragmatic cluster randomized controlled trial of an educational intervention for GPs in the assessment and management of depression. Psychological Medicine 34, 63–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilbody, S.M., House, A.O. & Sheldon, T.A. (2001). Routinely administered questionnaires for depression and anxiety: a systematic review. British Medical Journal 322, 406–409.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldberg, D. & Huxley, P. (1992). Common Mental Disorders: A Bio-social Model. Tavistock/Routledge: London, New York.Google Scholar
Greenberg, P.E., Stiglin, L.E., Finkelstein, S.N. & Berndt, E.R. (1993). The economic burden of depression in 1990. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 54, 405–418.Google ScholarPubMed
Guze, S.B. & Robins, E. (1970). Suicide and primary affective disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry 117, 437–438.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hagnell, O., Lanke, J., Rorsman, B., Öjesjö, L. (1982). Are we entering an age of melancholy? Depressive illnesses in a prospective epidemiological study over 25 years: the Lundby Study, Sweden. Psychological Medicine 12, 279–289.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamalainen, J., Isometsä, E., Laukkala, T., Kaprio, J., Poikolainen, K., Heikkinen, M., Lindeman, S. & Aro, H. (2004). Use of health services for rmajor depressive episode in Finland. Journal of Affective Disorders 19, 105–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hansen, V., Arnesen, E. & Jacobsen, B.K. (1997). Total mortality in people admited to a psychiatric hospital. British Journal of Psychiatry 170, 186–190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, E.C. & Barraclough, B. (1998). Excess mortality of mental disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry 173, 11–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henkel, V., Mergl, R., Kohnen, R., Maier, W., Müller, H-J. & Hegerl, U. (2003). Identifying depression in primary care: a comparison of different methods in a prospective cohort study. British Medical Journal 326, 200–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hippisley-Cox, J., Fielding, K. & Pringle, M. (1998). Depression as a risk factor for ischaemic heart disease in men: population based case-control study. British Medical Journal 316, 1714–1719.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacobi, F., Wittchen, H-U., Hölting, C., Höfler, M., Pfister, H., M.ller, N. & Lieb, R. (2004). Prevalence, comorbidity and correlates of mental disorders in the general population: results from the German Health Interview and Examination Survey (GHS). Psychological Medicine 34, 597–611.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Joukamaa, M., Lehtinen, V. & Karlsson, H. (1995). The ability of general practitioners to detect mental disorders in primary health care. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 91, 52–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karlsson, H., Joukamaa, M. & Lehtinen, V. (2000). Differences between patients with identified and not identified psychiatric disorders in primary care. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 102, 354–358.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keller, M., Lavori, B.P.W., Lewis, C.E. & Klerman, G.L. (1983). Predictors of relapse in major depression. Journal of the American Medical Association 250, 3299–3304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keller, M.B., Lavori, P.W., Klerman, G.L., Andreasen, N.C., Endicott, J., Coryell, W., Fawcett, J., Rice, J.P. & Hirschfeld, R.M.A. (1986). Low levels and lack of predictors of somatotherapy and psychotherapy received by depressed patients. Archives of General Psychiatry 43, 548–466.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kennedy, N., Abbott, R. & Paykel, E.S. (2003). Remission and recurrence of depression in the maintenance era: long-term outcome in a Cambridge cohort. Psychological Medicine 33, 827–838.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennedy, N., Abbott, R. & Paykel, E.S. (2004). Longitudinal syndromal and sub-syndromal symptoms after severe depression: 10-year follow-up study. British Journal of Psychiatry 184, 330–336.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kessing, L.V., Andersen, P.K., Mortensen, P.B. & Bolwig, T.G. (1998). Recurrence in affective disorder. 1: case register study. British Journal of Psychiatry 172, 23–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kessler, D., Bennewith, O., Lewis, G. & Sharp, D. (2002). Detection of depression and anxiety in primary care: follow-up study. British Medical Journal 325, 1016–1017.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kessler, R.C., Chiu, W.T., Demier, O. & Walters, E.E. (2005). Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV Disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry 62, 617–627.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
King, M., Davidson, O., Taylor, F., Haines, A., Sharp, D. & Turner, R. (2002). Effectiveness of teaching general practitioners skills in brief cognitive behaviour therapy to treat patients with depresson: randomised controlled trial. British Medical Journal 324, 947–950.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lecrubier, Y., Bourin, M., Moon, C.A.L., Schifano, F., Blanchard, C., Danjou, P. & Hackett, D. (1997). Efficacy of venlafaxine in depressive illness in general practice. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 95, 485–493.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Linden, M., Lecrubier, Y., Bellantuono, C., Benkert, O., Kisely, S. & Simon, G. (1999). The prescribing of psychotropic drugs by primary care physicians: an international collaborative study. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 19, 132–140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lothgren, M.C. (2004). Economic evidence in affective disorders; a review. European Journal of Health Economics 5, Suppl. 1, S12–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maj, M., Veltro, F., Pirozzi, F., Lobrace, S. & Magliano, L. (1992). Pattern of recurrence of illness after recovery from an episode of major depression: a prospective study. American Journal of Psychiatry 149, 795–800.Google ScholarPubMed
Malt, U.F., Robak, O.H., Badsbu, H-P., Bakke, B. & Loeb, M. (1999). The Norwegian naturalistic treatment study of depression in general practice (NORDEP)-1: randomised double blind study. British Medical Journal 318, 1180–1184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Munk-Jørgensen, P., Fink, P., Brevik, J.I., Dalgard, O.S., Engberg, M., Hanson, L., Holm, M., Joukamaa, M., Karlsson, H., Lehtinen, V., Nettelbladt, P., Stefansson, C., Sorensen, L., Jensen, J., Borgquist, L., Sandager, I. & Nordstrom, G. (1997). Psychiatric morbidity in primary public health care: a multicentre investigation. Part II. Hidden morbidity and choice of treatment. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 95, 6–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murphy, J.L., Laird, N.M., Monson, R.R., Sobol, M. & Leighton, A.H. (2000). Incidence of depression in the Stirling County Study: historical and comparative perspectives. Psychological Medicine 30, 503–512.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murray, L., Sinclair, D., Cooper, P., Ducournau, P., Turner, P. & Stein, A. (1999). The socioemotional development of 5-year-old children of postnatally depressed mothers. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 40, 1259–1271.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Leary, D., Paykel, E.S., Todd, C. & Vardulaki, K. (2001). Suicide in primary affective disorders revisited: a systematic review by treatment era. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 62, 804–811.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ormel, J., Koeter, M.W.J., van den Brink, W. & van de Willige, G. (1991). Recognition, management, and course of anxiety and depression in general practice. Archives of General Psychiatry 48, 700–706.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ormel, J., Oldehinkel, T., Brilman, E. & van den Brink, W. (1993). Outcome of depression and anxiety in primary care. A three wave 3½ year study of psychopathology and disability. Archives of General Psychiatry 50, 759–766.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paykel, E.S. (2000). Not an age of depression after all? Incidence rates may be stable over time. Psychological Medicine 30, 489–490.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paykel, E.S. (2001). Continuation and maintenance therapy in depression. British Medical Bulletin 57, 145–159.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paykel, E.S. & Jenkins, R. (eds.) (1994). Prevention in Psychiatry. Gaskell: London.Google Scholar
Paykel, E.S., Hollyman, J.A., Freeling, P. & Sedgwick, P. (1988). Predictors of therapeutic benefit from amitriptyline in mild depression: a general practice placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Affective Disorders 14, 83–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paykel, E.S., Ramana, R., Cooper, Z., Hayhurst, H., Kerr, J. & Barocka, A. (1995). Residual symptoms after partial remission: an important outcome in depression. Psychological Medicine 25, 1171–1180.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paykel, E.S., Hart, D. & Priest, R.G. (1998). Changes in public attitudes to depression during the Defeat Depression Campaign. British Journal of Psychiatry 173, 519–522.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paykel, E.S., Brugha, T. & Fryers, T. (2005a). Size and burden of depressive disorders in Europe. European Neuropharmacology 15, 411–423.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paykel, E.S., Scott, J., Cornwall, P.L., Abbott, R., Crane, C., Pope, M. & Johnson, A.L. (2005b). Duration of relapse prevention after cognitive therapy in residual depression: follow-up of controlled trial. Psychological Medicine 35, 59–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pedersen, S.H., Stage, K.B., Bertelsen, A., Grinsted, P., Kragh-Sørensen, P. & Sørensen, T. (2001). ICD-10 criteria for depression in general practice. Journal of Affective Disorders 65, 191–194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Penninx, B.W., Beekman, J.H., Honig, A.T.F., A., , Schoevers, R.A., van Eijk, J.T.M. & van Tilburg, W. (2001). Depression and cardiac mortality: results from a community-based longitudinal survey. Archives of General Psychiatry 58, 221–227.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pintor, L., Gastó, C., Navarro, V., Torres, X. & Fañanas, L. (2003). Relapse of major depression after complete and partial remission during a 2 year follow-up. Journal of Affective Disorders 73, 237–244.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Price, R.H., van Ryn, M. & Vinokur, A.D. (1992). Impact of a preventive job search intervention on the likelihood of depression among the unemployed. Journal of Health and Social Behaviour 33, 158–167.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Proudfoot, J., Goldberg, D., Mann, A., Everitt, B., Marks, I. & Gray, J.A. (2003). Computerized, interactive, multi-media cognitive-behavioural program for anxiety and depression in general practice. Psychological Medicine 33, 217–227.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pulska, T., Pahkala, K., Laippala, P. & Kivelä, S-L. (1999). Follow-up study of longstanding depression as predictor of mortality in elderly people living in the community. British Medical Journal 318, 432–433.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramana, R., Paykel, E.S., Surtees, P.G., Melzer, D. & Mehta, M. (1999). Medication received by patients with depression following the acute episode: adequacy and relation to outcome. British Journal of Psychiatry 174, 128–134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Regier, D.A., Narrow, W.E., Rae, D.S., Manderscheid, R.W., Locke, B.Z. & Goodwin, F.K. (1993). The de facto US mental and addictive disorders service system. Epidemiologie catchment area prospective 1-year prevalence rates of disorders and services. Archives of General Psychiatry 5, 85–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rice, D.P. & Miller, (1995). The economic burden of affective disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry 166, Suppl. 27, 34–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rizzo, R., Piccinelli, M., Mazzi, M.A., Bellantuono, C. & Tansella, M. (2000). The Personal Health Questionnaire: a new screening instrument for detection of ICD-10 depressive disorders in primary care. Psychological Medicine 30, 831–840.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rorsman, B., Grisbeck, A., Hagnell, O., Lanke, J., Ohman, R., Öjesjö, L. & Otterbeck, L. (1990). A prospective study of first incidence depression: the Lundby Study 1957–1972. British Journal of Psychiatry 156, 336–342.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutz, W., von Knorring, L. & Walinder, J. (1992). Long-term effects of an educational program for general practitioners given by the Swedish Committee for the Prevention and Treatment of Depression. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 85, 83–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scott, A.I.F. & Freeman, C.P.L. (1992). Edinburgh primary care depression study: treatment outcome, patient satisfaction, and cost after 16 weeks. British Medical Journal 304, 883–887.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simon, G.E., vonKorff, M., Rutter, C. & Wagner, E. (2000). Randomised trial of monitoring, feedback, and management of care by telephone to improve treatment of depression in primary care. British Medical Journal 320, 550–554.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simpson, S., Corney, R., Fitzgerald, P. & Beecham, J. (2003). A randomised controlled trial to evaluate the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of psychodynamic counselling for general practice patients with chronic depression. Psychological Medicine 33, 229–239.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sireling, L.I., Paykel, E.S., Freeling, P., Rao, B.M. & Patel, S.P. (1985). Depression in general practice: case thresholds and diagnosis. British Journal of Psychiatry 147, 113–119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stansfeld, S., Feeney, A., Head, J., Canner, R., North, F. & Marmot, M. (1995). Sickness absence for psychiatric illness: the Whitehall II study. Social Science and Medicine 40, 189–197.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stoudemire, A., Frank, R., Hedemark, N., Kamlet, M. & Blazer, D. (1986). The economic burden of depression. General Hospital Psychiatry 8, 387–394.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teasdale, J.D., Fennell, M.J.V., Hibbert, G.A. & Amies, P.L. (1984). Cognitive therapy for major depressive disorder in primary care. British Journal of Psychiatry 144, 400–406.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thomas, M. & Morris, S. (2003). Cost of depression among adults in England in 2000. British Journal of Psychiatry 183, 513–519.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thompson, C. & Thompson, C.M. (1989). The prescription of antidepressants in general practice: 1. A critical review. Human Psychopharmacology 4, 91–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, C., Kinmonth, A.L., Stevens, L., Peveler, R.C., Stevens, A., Ostler, K.J., Pickering, R.M., Baker, N.G., Henson, A., Preece, J., Cooper, D. & Campbell, M.J. (2000). Effects of a clinical practice guideline and practice-based education on detection and outcome of depression in primary care: Hampshire Depression Project randomised controlled trial. Lancet 355, 185–191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tiemens, B.G., Ormel, J., Jenner, J.A., van der Meer, K., van Os, T.W.D.P., van den Brink, R.H.S., Smit, A. & van den Brink, W. (1999). Training primary care physicians to recognise, diagnose and manage depression: does it improve patient outcome? Psychological Medicine 29, 833–845.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Üstün, T.B., Ayuso-Mateos, J.L., Chatterji, S., Mathers, C. & Murray, C.J.L. (2004). Global burden of depressive disorders in the year 2000. British Journal of Psychiatry 184, 386–392.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Londen, L., Molenaar, R.P.G., Goekoop, J.G., Zwinderman, A.H. & Rooijmans, H.G.M. (1998). Three to 5-year prospective follow-up of outcome in major depression. Psychological Medicine 28, 731–735.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Os, T.W.D.P., van den Brink, R.H.S., Jenner, J.A., van der Meer, K., Tiemens, B.G. & Ormel, J. (2002). Effects on depression pharma-cotherapy of a Dutch general practitioner training programme. Journal of Affective Disorders 71, 105–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Weel-Baumgarten, E., van den Bosch, W., van den Hoogen, H. & Zitman, F.J. (1998). Ten year follow-up of depression after diagnosis in general practice. British Journal of General Practice 48, 1643–1646.Google ScholarPubMed
Van Weel-Baumgarten, E., Sehers, H.J. & van den Bosch, W. (2000). Long term follow-up of depression among patients in the community and in family practice settings. Journal of Family Practice 49, 1115–1120.Google ScholarPubMed
Wang, P.S., Lane, M., Olfson, M., Pincus, H.A., Wells, K.B. & Kessler, R.C. (2005). Twelve-month use of mental health services in the United States. Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry 62, 629–640.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weissman, M.M. & Paykel, E.S. (1974). The Depressed Woman: A Study of Social Relationships. University of Chicago Press: Chicago.Google Scholar
Weissman, M.M., Gammon, G.D., John, K., Merikangas, K.R., Warner, V., Prusoff, B.A. & Sholomskas, D. (1987). Children of depressed parents. Increased psychopathology and early onset of major depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 44, 847–853.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wells, K.B., Stewart, A., Hays, R.D., Burnam, M.A., Rogers, W., Daniels, M., Berry, S., Greenfield, S. & Ware, J. (1989). The functioning and well-being of depressed patients. Results from the Medial Outcomes Study. Journal of the American Medical Association 262, 914–919.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
World Health Organization (2001). Burden of Mental and Behavioural Disorders. In The World Health Report 2001, Chapter 2, pp. 19–45. World Health Organisation: Geneva.Google Scholar
Wittchen, H.-U. & Pittrow, D. (2002). Prevalence, recognition and management of depression in primary care in Germany: the Depression 2000 study. Human Psychopharmacology Clinical and Experimental 17, S1–S11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed