Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-8ctnn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T09:09:15.928Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Gender differences in public beliefs and attitudes about mental disorder in western countries: A systematic review of population studies

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  30 September 2011

A. Holzinger ,
F. Floris ,
G. Schomerus ,
M. G. Carta  and
M. C. Angermeyer
A. Holzinger
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
F. Floris
Affiliation:
Centro di Psichiatria di Consultazione e Psicosomatica, Università degli Studi di Cagliari and AOU Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
G. Schomerus
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
M. G. Carta
Affiliation:
Centro di Psichiatria di Consultazione e Psicosomatica, Università degli Studi di Cagliari and AOU Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
M. C. Angermeyer*
Affiliation:
Centro di Psichiatria di Consultazione e Psicosomatica, Università degli Studi di Cagliari and AOU Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy Center for Public Mental Health, Gösing am Wagram, Austria
*
*Address for correspondence: Professor Dr M. C. Angermeyer, Center for Public Mental Health, 3482 Gösing am Wagram, Austria. (Email: [email protected])
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Aims.

While quite a number of theories and hypotheses about gender differences in public beliefs and attitudes about mental illness have been proposed, the empirical evidence, particularly evidence based on population studies, is rather scarce.

Methods.

A systematic review of population-based studies providing information on gender differences in beliefs about mental disorders and attitudes towards the mentally ill was carried out.

Results.

While both genders are no different in their willingness to seek informal help for mental illness, women seem more ready to recommend professional help than men. They also evaluate treatment outcomes more favourably. Women are more likely to endorse psychosocial conceptualizations of mental illness than men, and, in consequence, are more in favour of psychotherapy. With a few exceptions, women do not seem to display more favourable attitudes than men towards people with mental disorder. Female patients seem to be rejected by the public less than male patients.

Conclusions.

Our review suggests that gender matters in public beliefs and attitudes about mental illness. Some theoretical assumptions are supported by empirical findings, others not. However, as evidence is rather scarce, further studies testing theory-driven hypotheses are needed.

Keywords

Gender differencesmental illnesspublic attitudes
Type
Original Articles
Information
Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences , Volume 21 , Issue 1 , March 2012 , pp. 73 - 85
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alexander, LA, Link, BG (2003). The impact of contact on stigmatizing attitudes toward people with mental illness. Journal of Mental Health 12, 271–289.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alonso, J, Angermeyer, MC, Bernert, S, Bruffaerts, R, Brugha, TS, Bryson, H, de Girolamo, G, de Graaf, R, Demyttenaere, K, Gasquet, I, Haro, JM, Katz, S, Kessler, RC, Kovess, V, Lépine, JP, Ormel, J, Polidori, G, Vilagut, G (2004 a). Prevalence of mental disorders in Europe: results from the European Study on Epidemiology of Mental Disorders (ESEMeD) project. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 109 (Suppl. 420), 21–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alonso, J, Angermeyer, MC, Bernert, S, Bruffaerts, R, Brugha, TS, Bryson, H, de Girolamo, G, de Graaf, R, Demyttenaere, K, Gasquet, I, Haro, JM, Katz, S, Kessler, RC, Kovess, V, Lépine, JP, Ormel, J, Polidori, G, Vilagut, G (2004 b). Use of mental health services in Europe: results from the European study of epidemiology of mental disorders (ESEMeD) project. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 109 (Suppl. 420), 47–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Angermeyer, MC, Dietrich, S (2006). Public beliefs about and attitudes toward people with mental illness: a review of population studies. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 113, 163–179.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Angermeyer, MC, Matschinger, H (1995 a). Violent attacks on public figures by persons suffering from psychiatric disorders. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 245, 159–164.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Angermeyer, MC, Matschinger, H (1995 b). Auswirkungen der Reform der psychiatrischen Versorgung in den neuen Ländern der Bundesrepublik Deutschland auf die Einstellung der Bevölkerung zur Psychiatrie und zu psychisch Kranken [Impact of the Reform of Psychiatric Care in the New German States on Public Attitudes towards Psychiatry and the Mentally Ill]. Nomos: Baden-Baden.Google Scholar
Angermeyer, MC, Matschinger, H (1996 a). Soziale Distanz der Bevölkerung gegenüber psychisch Kranken [Social distance of the public towards people with mental illness]. Gesundheitswesen 58, S18–S24.Google Scholar
Angermeyer, MC, Matschinger, H (1996 b). The effect of violent attacks by schizophrenic persons on the attitude of the public towards the mentally ill. Social Science and Medicine 43, 1721–1728.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Angermeyer, MC, Matschinger, H (1997). Social distance towards the mentally ill: results of representative surveys in the Federal Republic of Germany. Psychological Medicine 27, 131–141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Angermeyer, MC, Matschinger, H (1999). Lay beliefs about mental disorders: a comparison between the western and the eastern parts of Germany. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 34, 275–281.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Angermeyer, MC, Matschinger, H (2003). Public beliefs about schizophrenia and depression: similarities and differences. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 38, 526–534.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Angermeyer, MC, Matschinger, H (2004 a). Public attitudes to people with depression: have there been any changes over the last decade? Journal of Affective Disorders 83, 177–182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Angermeyer, MC, Matschinger, H (2004 b). Public attitudes towards psychotropic drugs: have there been any changes in recent years? Pharmacopsychiatry 37, 152–156.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Angermeyer, MC, Matschinger, H (2004 c). The stereotype of schizophrenia and its impact on discrimination against people with schizophrenia: results from a representative survey in Germany. Schizophrenia Bulletin 30, 1049–1061.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Angermeyer, MC, Matschinger, H (2005). The stigma of mental illness in Germany: a trend analysis. International Journal of Social Psychiatry 51, 276–284.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Angermeyer, MC, Matschinger, H, Siara, CS (1992). Wissensbestände, Überzeugungssysteme und Einstellungsmuster der Bevölkerung der Bundesrepublik Deutschland bezüglich psychischer Erkrankungen [Knowledge, Beliefs and Attitudes of the German Public About Mental Disorders]. Zentralinstitut für Seelische Gesundheit: Mannheim.Google Scholar
Angermeyer, MC, Däumer, R, Matschinger, H (1993). Benefits and risks of psychotropic medication in the eyes of the general public: results of a survey in the Federal Republic of Germany. Pharmacopsychiatry 26, 114–120.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Angermeyer, MC, Matschinger, H, Grobel, S (1995 a). Einstellung der Bevölkerung zu Alkoholkranken. Teil 1: Soziale Distanz [Attitude of the public towards alcoholics. Part 1: Social distance]. SUCHT 41, 232–237.Google Scholar
Angermeyer, MC, Matschinger, H, Held, T (1995 b). Bereitschaft zu persönlichem Engagement für psychisch Kranke [Willingness to engage in the care for the mentally ill]. Neuropsychiatrie 9, 130–136.Google Scholar
Angermeyer, MC, Matschinger, H, Holzinger, A (1998 a). Einstellung der Bevölkerung zur Psychotherapie [Public attitude towards psychotherapy]. In Praxis der Psychotherapie mit Kinden und Jugendlichen. Störungsspezifische Behandlungsformen und Qualitätssicherung [Practice of Psychotherapy with Children and Adolescents. Disorder-specific Treatment and Quality Assurance] (ed. Remschmidt, H.). Deutscher Ärzte-Verlag: Köln.Google Scholar
Angermeyer, MC, Matschinger, H, Holzinger, A (1998 b). Gender and attitudes towards people with schizophrenia. Results of a representative survey in the Federal Republic of Germany. International Journal of Social Psychiatry 44, 107–116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Angermeyer, MC, Matschinger, H, Holzinger, A (1999 a). Akzeptanz gemeinde-psychiatrischer Reformen in der Bevölkerung. Ergebnisse einer Repräsentativerhebung in den neuen deutschen Bundesländern [Public acceptance of community psychiatry services. Results of a representative survey in the New German States]. Psychiatrische Praxis 26, 16–21.Google Scholar
Angermeyer, MC, Matschinger, H, Riedel-Heller, SG (1999 b). Whom to ask for help in case of a mental disorder? Preferences of the lay public. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 34, 202–210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Angermeyer, MC, Beck, M, Matschinger, H (2003 a). Determinants of the public's preference for social distance from people with schizophrenia. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 48, 663–668.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Angermeyer, MC, Heiss, S, Kirschenhofer, S, Ladinser, E, Löffler, W, Schulze, B, Swiridoff, M (2003 b). Die deutsche Version des Community-Attitudes-toward-the mentally-Ill (CAMI)-Inventars [The German version of the Community-Attitudes-Toward-the-Mentally-Ill (CAMI) inventory]. Psychiatrische Praxis 30, 202–206.Google ScholarPubMed
Angermeyer, MC, Matschinger, H, Corrigan, PW (2004 a). Familiarity with mental illness and social distance from people with schizophrenia and major depression: testing a model using data from a representative population survey. Schizophrenia Research 69, 175–182.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Angermeyer, MC, Kenzin, DV, Korolenko, TP, Beck, M, Matschinger, H (2004 b). Vorstellungen der Bewohner der Stadt Nowosibirsk über psychische Erkrankungen: Ergebnisse einer Repräsentativerhebung [Opinions on psychiatric disorders of the citizens of Novosibirsk: Results of a representative study]. Psychiatrische Praxis 31, 90–95.Google Scholar
Angermeyer, MC, Breier, P, Dietrich, S, Kenzine, D, Matschinger, H (2005). Public attitudes toward psychiatric treatment. An international comparison. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 40, 855–864.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Angermeyer, MC, Holzinger, A, Carta, MG, Schomerus, G (in press). Biogenetic causal explanations and public acceptance of mentally ill persons. A systemic review of population studies. British Journal of Psychiatry in press.Google Scholar
Anglin, DM, Alberti, PM, Link, BG, Phelan, JC (2008). Racial differences in beliefs about the effectiveness and necessity of mental health treatment. American Journal of Community Psychology 42, 17–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barney, LJ, Griffiths, KM, Jorm, A, Christensen, H (2006). Stigma about depression and its impact on help-seeking intentions. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 40, 51–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beck, M, Dietrich, S, Matschinger, H, Angermeyer, MC (2003). Alcoholism: Low standing with the public? Attitudes towards spending financial resources on medical care and research on alcoholism. Alcohol and Alcoholism 38, 602–605.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Braunholtz, S, Davidson, S, Myant, K, O'Connor, R (2007). Well? What do you think? (2006). The Third National Scottish Survey of Public Attitudes to Mental Health, Mental Wellbeing and Mental Health Problems. Scottish Government Social Research: Edinburgh.Google Scholar
Brockington, IF, Hall, P, Levings, J, Murphy, C (1993). The community's tolerance of the mentally ill. British Journal of Psychiatry 162, 93–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Centre for Reviews and Dissemination (2009). Systematic Reviews. CDR's Guidance for Undertaking Reviews in Health-Care. New York Publishing Services: New York.Google Scholar
Clement, S, Jarrett, M, Henderson, C, Thornicroft, G (2010). Messages to use in population-level campaigns to reduce mental health-related stigma: consensus developing study. Epidemiologia e Psichiatria Sociale 19, 72–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cook, TM, Wang, J (2010). Descriptive epidemiology of stigma against depression in a general population sample in Alberta. BMC Psychiatry 10, 29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corrigan, PW, Watson, AC (2007). The stigma of psychiatric disorders and the gender, ethnicity, and education of the perceiver. Community Mental Health Journal 43, 439–458.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cotton, SM, Wright, A, Harris, MG, Jorm, AF, McGorry, PD (2006). Influence of gender on mental health literacy in young Australians. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 40, 790–796.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Croghan, TW, Tomlin, M, Pescosolido, BA, Schnittker, J, Martin, J, Lubell, K, Swindle, R (2003). American attitudes toward and willingness to use psychiatric medications. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 191, 166–174.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dahlberg, KM, Waern, M, Runeson, B (2008). Mental health literacy and attitudes in a Swedish community sample – investigating the role of personal experience of mental health care. BMC Public Health 8, 8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diala, CC, Muntaner, C, Walrath, C, Nickerson, K, LaVeist, T, Leaf, P (2000). Racial differences in attitudes toward professional mental health care and in the use of services. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 70, 455–464.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dietrich, S, Beck, M, Bujantugs, B, Kenzine, D, Matschinger, H, Angermeyer, MC (2004). The relationship between public causal beliefs and social distance to mentally ill people. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 38, 348–354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Economou, M, Richardson, C, Gramandani, C, Stalikas, A, Stefanis, C (2009). Knowledge about schizophrenia and attitudes towards people with schizophrenia in Greece. International Journal of Social Psychiatry 55, 361–371.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freidl, M, Lang, T, Scherer, M (2003). How psychiatric patients perceive the public's stereotype of mental illness. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 38, 269–275.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grausgruber, A, Katschnig, H, Meise, U, Schöny, W (2002). Einstellungen der österreichischen Bevölkerung zu Schizophrenie [Attitudes of the Austrian public towards schizophrenia]. Neuropsychiatrie 16, 54–67.Google Scholar
Grausgruber, A, Meise, U, Katschnig, H, Schöny, W, Fleischhacker, WW (2007). Patterns of social distance towards people suffering from schizophrenia in Austria: a comparison between the general public, relatives and mental health staff. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 115, 310–319.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Griffiths, KM, Christensen, H, Jorm, AF (2008). Predictors of depression stigma. BMC Psychiatry 8, 25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harris, AR (1977). Sex and theories of deviance: toward a functional theory of deviant type scripts. American Sociological Review 42, 3–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Higgins, JPT, Green, S (eds.) (2009). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.0.2. Cochrane Collaboration: London.Google Scholar
Holzinger, A (2010). Vorstellungen der Bevölkerung Wiens zur Vorbeugung und Behandlung der Depression [Beliefs of the Viennese public on prevention and treatment of depression]. Research Report, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna.Google Scholar
Holzinger, A, Matschinger, H, Angermeyer, MC (2011). What to do about depression? Help-seeking and treatment recommendations of the public. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences 20, 163–169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horwitz, AV (1982). The Social Control of Mental Illness. Academic Press: New Brunswick, NJ.Google Scholar
Jagdeo, A, Cox, BJ, Stein, MB, Sareen, J (2009). Negative attitudes toward help seeking for mental illness in 2 population-based surveys from the United States and Canada. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 54, 757–766.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jorm, AF, Griffiths, KM (2008). The public's stigmatizing attitudes towards people with mental disorders: how important are biomedical conceptualizations? Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 118, 315–321.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jorm, AF, Wright, A (2008). Influences on young people's stigmatising attitudes towards peers with mental disorders: a national survey of young Australians and their parents. British Journal of Psychiatry 192, 144–149.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keyes, KM, Hatzenbuehler, ML, McLaughlin, KA, Link, B, Olfson, M, Grant, BF, Hain, D (2010). Stigma and treatment for alcohol disorders in the United States. American Journal of Epidemiology 172, 1364–1372.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Komiti, A, Judd, F, Jackson, H (2006). The influence of stigma and attitudes on seeking help from a GP for mental health problems. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 41, 738–745.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kovess-Masfety, V, Saragoussi, D, Sevilla-Dedieu, C, Suchocka, GF, Arveiller, N, Gasquet, I, Younes, N, Hardy-Bayle, MC (2007). What makes people decide who to turn to when faced with a mental health problem? Results from a French survey. BMC Public Health 7, 188.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lauber, C, Nordt, C, Falcato, L, Rössler, W (2000 a). Bürgerhilfe in der Psychiatrie: Determinanten von Einstellung und tatsächlichem Engagement [Volunteering in psychiatry: Attitude and actual working commitment]. Psychiatrische Praxis 27, 347–350.Google Scholar
Lauber, C, Nordt, C, Sartorius, N, Falcato, L, Rössler, W (2000 b). Public acceptance of restrictions on mentally ill people. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 102 (Suppl. 407), 26–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lauber, C, Nordt, C, Falcato, L, Rössler, W (2002 a). Public attitude to compulsory admission of mentally ill people. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 105, 385–389.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lauber, C, Nordt, C, Falcato, L, Rössler, W (2002 b). Determinants of attitude to volunteering in psychiatry: results of a public opinion survey in Switzerland. International Journal of Social Psychiatry 48, 209–219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lauber, C, Nordt, C, Falcato, L, Rössler, W (2003). Do people recognise mental illness? Factors influencing mental health literacy. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 253, 248–251.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lauber, C, Nordt, C, Falcato, L, Rössler, W (2004). Factors influencing social distance toward people with mental illness. Community Mental Health Journal 40, 265–274.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lauber, C, Nordt, C, Falcato, L, Rössler, W (2005 a). Einstellung der Allgemeinbevölkerung gegenüber Psychotherapie [Attitude of general public towards psychotherapy]. Neuropsychiatrie 19, 59–64.Google Scholar
Lauber, C, Nordt, C, Rössler, W (2005 b). Lay beliefs about treatments for people with mental illness and their implications for anti-stigma strategies. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 50, 745–752.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lauber, C, Nordt, C, Haker, H, Falcato, L, Rössler, W (2006). Community psychiatry: results of a public opinion survey. International Journal of Social Psychiatry 52, 234–242.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Link, BG, Cullen, FT (1986). Contact with the mentally ill and perceptions of how dangerous they are. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 27, 289–303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Link, BG, Phelan, JC (2001). Conceptualizing stigma. Annual Review of Sociology 27, 363–385.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Livingston, JD, Boyd, JE (2010). Correlates and consequences of internalized stigma for people living with mental illness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Social Science and Medicine 71, 2150–2161.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mackenzie, CS, Scott, T, Mather, A, Sareen, J (2008). Older adults' help-seeking attitudes and treatment beliefs concerning mental health problems. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 16, 1010–1019.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Madianos, MG, Madianou, D, Vlachonikolis, J, Stefanis, CN (1987). Attitudes towards mental illness in the Athens area: Implications for community mental health intervention. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 75, 158–165.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Madianos, MG, Economou, M, Hatjiandreou, M, Papageorgiou, A, Rogakou, E (1999). Changes in public attitudes towards mental illness in the Athens area (1979/1980–1994). Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 99, 73–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maggiolo, D, Buizza, C, Vittorielli, M, Lanfredi, M, Rossi, G, Ricci, A, Cicolini, A, Lasalvia, A (2010). Patterns of experienced and anticipated discrimination in patients with schizophrenia. Italian results from the INDIGO international multisite project. Epidemiologia e Psichiatria Sociale 19, 314–325.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martin, JK, Pescosolido, BA, Tuch, SA (2000). Of fear and loathing: The role of ‘disturbing behavior’, labels, and causal attributions in shaping public attitudes toward people with mental illness. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 41, 208–223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, JK, Pescosolido, BA, Olafsdottir, S, McLeod, JD (2007). The construction of fear: American's preferences for social distance from children and adolescents with mental health problems. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 48, 50–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matschinger, H, Angermeyer, MC (1996). Lay beliefs about the causes of mental disorders: a new methodological approach. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 31, 309–315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matschinger, H, Angermeyer, MC (2004). The public's preferences concerning the allocation of financial resources to health care: results from a representative population survey in Germany. European Psychiatry 19, 478–482.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCrone, P, Knapp, M, Henri, M, McDaid, D (2010). The economic impact of initiatives to reduce stigma: demonstration of a modeling approach. Epidemiologia e Psichiatria Sociale 19, 131–139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mechanic, D (1978). Sex, illness, illness behavior and the use of health services. Social Science and Medicine 12, 207–214.Google Scholar
McLeod, JD, Pescosolido, BA, Takeuchi, DT, White, TF (2004). Public attitudes toward the use of psychiatric medications for children. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 45, 53–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moher, D, Liberati, A, Tetzlaff, J, Altman, DG, the PRISMA group (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 62, 1006–1012.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mojtabai, R (2007). Americans' attitudes toward mental health treatment seeking: 1990–2003. Psychiatric Services 58, 642–651.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mojtabai, R (2010). Mental illness stigma and willingness to seek mental health care in the European Union. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 45, 705–712.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Möller-Leimkühler, AM (2002). Barriers to help seeking by men: a review of socio-cultural and clinical literature with particular reference to depression. Journal of Affective Disorders 71, 1–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morgan, AJ, Jorm, AF (2009). Recall of news stories about mental illness by Australian youth: associations with help-seeking attitudes and stigma. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 43, 866–872.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mukolo, A, Heflinger, CA (2011). Factors associated with attributions about child health conditions and social distance preference. Community Mental Health Journal 47, 288–299.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nam, SK, Chu, HJ, Lee, MK, Lee, JH, Kim, N, Lee, SM (2010). A meta-analysis of gender differences in attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help. Journal of the American College of Health 59, 110–116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nordt, C, Müller, B, Lauber, C, Rössler, W (2003). Erhöhte Stigmatisierung durch vergangenen Klinikaufenthalt? Resultate einer Befragung der schweizerischen Bevölkerung [Does previous inpatient treatment increase stigmatization? Results from a survey among the Swiss public]. Psychiatrische Praxis 30, 384–388.Google Scholar
Oh, E, Jorm, AF, Wright, A (2009). Perceived helpfulness of websites for mental health information: a national survey of young Australians. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 44, 293–299.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ojeda, VD, Bergstresser, SM (2008). Gender, race-ethnicity, and psychosocial barriers to mental health care: an examination of perceptions and attitudes among adults reporting unmet need. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 49, 317–334.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olafsdottir, S, Pescosolido, BA (2009). Drawing the line: the cultural cartography of utilization recommendations for mental health problems. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 50, 228–244.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parra, F (1985). Social tolerance of the mentally ill in the Mexican American community. International Journal of Social Psychiatry 31, 37–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pescosolido, BA, Monahan, J, Link, BG, Stueve, A, Kikuzawa, S (1999). The public's view of the competence, dangerousness, and need for legal coercion of persons with mental health problems. American Journal of Public Health 89, 1339–1345.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pescosolido, BA, Fettes, DL, Martin, JK, Monahan, J, McLeod, JD (2007 a). Perceived dangerousness of children with mental health problems and support for coerced treatment. Psychiatric Services 58, 619–625.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pescosolido, BA, Perry, BL, Martin, JK, McLeod, JD, Jensen, PS (2007 b). Stigmatizing attitudes and beliefs about treatment and psychiatric medications for children with mental illness. Psychiatric Services 58, 613–618.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pescosolido, BA, Jensen, PS, Martin, JK, Perry, BL, Olafsdottir, S, Fettes, D (2008). Public knowledge and assessment of child mental health problems: findings from the National Stigma Study-Children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 47, 3.Google ScholarPubMed
Pettigrew, TF (1998). Intergroup contact theory. Annual Review of Psychology 49, 65–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Phelan, JC, Link, BG (2004). Fear of people with mental illnesses: the role of personal and impersonal contact and exposure to threat and harm. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 45, 68–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Phelan, JC, Link, BG, Stueve, A, Pescosolido, BA (2000). Public conceptions of mental illness in 1950 and 1996: what is mental illness and is it to be feared? Journal of Health and Social Behavior 41, 188–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Phelan, JC, Yang, LH, Cruz-Rojas, R (2006). Effects of attributing serious mental illnesses to genetic causes on orientations to treatment. Psychiatric Services 57, 382–387.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Riedel-Heller, SG, Matschinger, H, Angermeyer, MC (2005). Mental disorders – who and what might help? Help-seeking and treatment preferences of the lay public. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 40, 167–174.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robertson, S (1995). Men's health promotion in the UK: a hidden problem. British Journal of Nursing 4, 3–16.
Scheff, TJ (1966). Being Mentally Ill. Aldine: Chicago.Google Scholar
Schnittker, J (2000). Gender and reactions to psychosocial problems: examination of social tolerance and perceived dangerousness. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 41, 224–249.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schnittker, J (2003). Gender and reactions to psychological problems: an examination of social tolerance and perceived dangerousness. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 44, 224–240.Google Scholar
Schnittker, J, Freese, J, Powell, B (2000). Nature, nurture, neither, nor: black–white differences in beliefs about the causes and appropriate treatment of mental illness. Social Forces 78, 1101–1130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schomerus, G, Matschinger, H, Angermeyer, MC (2006 a). Preferences of the public regarding cutbacks in expenditures for patient care: are there indications of discrimination against those with mental disorders? Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 41, 369–377.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schomerus, G, Matschinger, H, Angermeyer, MC (2006 b). Alcoholism: illness beliefs and resource allocation preferences of the public. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 82, 204–210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schomerus, G, Matschinger, H, Kenzin, D, Breier, P, Angermeyer, MC (2006 c). Public attitudes towards mental patients: a comparison between Novosibirsk, Bratislava and German cities. European Psychiatry 21, 436–441.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schomerus, G, Kenzin, D, Borsche, J, Matschinger, H, Angermeyer, MC (2007 a). The association of schizophrenia with split personality is not an ubiquitous phenomenon. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 42, 780–786.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schomerus, G, Matschinger, H, Angermeyer, MC (2007 b). Familiarity with mental illness and approval of structural discrimination against psychiatric patients in Germany. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disorder 195, 89–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schomerus, G, Angermeyer, MC (2008). Stigma and its impact on help-seeking for mental disorders – what do we know?. Epidemiologia e Psichiatria Sociale 17, 31–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schomerus, G, Matschinger, H, Angermeyer, MC (2009). The stigma of psychiatric treatment and help-seeking intentions for depression. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 259, 298–306.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sellick, K, Goodear, J (1985). Community attitudes toward mental illness: The influence of contact and demographic variables. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 19, 293–298.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sharac, J, McCrone, P, Clement, S, Thornicroft, G (2010). The economic impact of mental health stigma and discrimination: a systematic review. Epidemiologia e Psichiatria Sociale 19, 223–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shill, MA, Lumley, MA (2002). The Psychological Mindedness scale: factor structure, convergent validity and gender in a non-psychiatric sample. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory Research Practice 75, 131–150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sigurdsson, E, Olafsdottir, T, Gottfresson, M (2008). Public views on antidepressant treatment: lessons from a national survey. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry 62, 374–378.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sigurdsson, E, Olafsdottir, T, Gottfresson, M (2009). Hver ern volhort Islendinga til punglyndislyfja og hvao paettir ráoa mestu um mótun peirra? [Public views on antidepressant treatment: lessons from a national survey]. Laeknabladid 95, 819.Google Scholar
ten Have, M, de Graaf, R, Ormel, J, Vilagut, G, Kovess, V, Alonso, J, the ESEMeD/MHEDEA 2000 Investigators (2010 a). Are attitudes towards mental health help-seeking associated with service use? Results from the European Study of Epidemiology of Mental Disorders. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 45, 153–163.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
ten Have, M, de Graaf, R, Ormel, J, Vilagut, G, Kovess, V, Alonso, J (2010 b). Attituden aangaande zoeken van professionele hulp voor psychische problemen en werkelijk hulpzoekgedrag: verschillen in Europa [Attitudes to the seeking of psychiatric help from mental health care professionals and actually seeking help: differences in Europe]. Tijdschrift voor Psychiatrie 52, 205–217.Google Scholar
Thornicroft, G, Brohan, E, Rose, D, Sartorius, N, Leese, M (2009). Global pattern of experienced and anticipated discrimination against people with schizophrenia: a cross-sectional survey. Lancet 373, 408–415.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tudor, W, Tudor, JR, Gove, WR (1977). The effect of sex role differences on the social control of mental illness. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 18, 98–112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vanheusden, K, van der Ende, J, Mulder, CL, van Lenthe, FJ, Verhulst, FC, Mackenbach, JP (2009). Beliefs about mental health problems and helpseeking behavior in Dutch young adults. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 44, 239–246.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Veroff, J, Kulka, RA, Douvan, E (1981). Mental health in America. Patterns of help-seeking from 1957 to 1976. Basic Books: New York.Google Scholar
Warburton, J, McLaughlin, D (2006). Doing it from your heart: the role of older women as informal volunteers. Journal of Women Aging 18, 55–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wirth, JH, Bodenhausen, GV (2009). The role of gender in mental-illness stigma. Psychological Science 20, 169–173.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wolff, G, Pathare, S, Craig, T, Leff, J (1996). Community attitudes to mental illness. British Journal of Psychiatry 168, 183–190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wright, A, Jorm, AF, Harris, MG, McGorry, PD (2007). What's in a name? Is accurate recognition and labelling of mental disorders by young people associated with better help-seeking and treatment preferences? Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 42, 244–250.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wrigley, S, Jackson, H, Judd, F, Komiti, A (2005). Role of stigma and attitudes toward help-seeking from a general practitioner for mental health problems in a rural town. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 39, 514–521.CrossRefGoogle Scholar