Restoration ecology is a science focusing on using ecological principles to improve ecosystems degraded usually through habitat destruction (Bradshaw & Chadwik 1980, Handel et al. 1994). Successful ecological restoration depends on negotiation and understanding of different stakeholders, including the daily users of the resources, government institutions that will regulate resource use and the research community working in the area.

In 1998, we (von Hippel & von Hippel 1998) suggested that the advent of Viagra might take some of the market pressure off a variety of threatened species used to treat erectile dysfunction (ED) in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). In 2002, we (von Hippel & von Hippel 2002) followed up this initial suggestion by providing a more complete analysis of the species that might benefit if TCM consumers switched to Viagra, and we also provided preliminary evidence that the harvest of a few species used in TCM may have already declined due to the availability of Viagra.

The annual rate of deforestation in Brazilian Amazonia jumped by an estimated 40% between 2001 and 2002. This increase is in addition to a 15% upward revision by the Brazilian government of the estimated rate for 2001. Examination of the data underlying these estimates and comparisons with other measurements indicates that important questions remain unanswered, especially in the state of Mato Grosso, where assessment of the effectiveness of a deforestation licensing and control programme is critical to future efforts to contain forest destruction. The increase in deforestation rate in Mato Grosso in 2002 (23%) was less than half the increase in the remainder of Brazilian Amazonia (55%), indicating that the state government's deforestation control programme may have had some effect.

Understanding patterns of tropical deforestation is a crucial issue for Mexico, a country that has lost more than 95% of its original rainforest cover. This paper examines the causes of accelerated deforestation in the Sierra Santa Marta, Veracruz, Mexico, by looking at settlement history and the evolution of productive schemes in the villages of Venustiano Carranza and Magallanes. Both settlements were founded in the 1960s, after the government donated land to landless peasants. Conversion of forests into pastures, after several agricultural enterprises failed, resulted in more than 80% of the original tropical rainforests being removed in both communities between 1960 and 1998. The process of deforestation in the villages differed from models proposed for the Amazon and Central America, in which deforestation responded to capital-intensive efforts to open up the tropical frontier. In the villages, transformation of forests into pastures was, from the beginning, a smallholder phenomenon. Misguided policies and institutional malfunctions appeared to direct households toward deforestation. Nevertheless, environmental deterioration could not only be explained by external causes. Inside the communities, demographic pressure over land, the modification of traditional land tenure systems and the cultural adoption of cattle as a way to overcome poverty were significant factors in the relationship between colonization and forest clearance. Deforestation at Venustiano Carranza and Magallanes cannot be considered an ecologically destructive practice performed by peasants. In fact, the process reflects not only a lack of environmental awareness in national development policies, but also the intricate interaction of ecological, cultural, social and economical variables.

Concern about increasing rates of deforestation of tropical forests has resulted in investigations into the viability of local land-use practices and communal forms of governance. The majority of people in Guatemala live in regions where primary forests are absent. Several secondary forests in the highly populated highlands of Guatemala are communally managed forests, and people depend on forest products from these secondary forests for their livelihood. This study examines changes in forest structure and coverage of a native Pinus oocarpa Schiede communally managed forest in San Jose La Arada, Chiquimula in eastern Guatemala from 1954–1996. The pine forest is a municipal-communal property. The municipality has title to the land, however the forests are communal property. Neither forest committees in the villages nor municipal government regulations establish communal management of the pine forest; instead there are customary rules in the villages that guide forest extraction. People from the surrounding villages extract fuelwood, ocote (resin-rich wood harvested from the tree trunk and used for kindling) and timber from the pine forest. The P. oocarpa forest is situated in a seasonally dry region with nutrient-poor and highly eroded soils. Aerial photographs from 1954 and 1987 were compared to estimated changes in forest cover. Changes in forest structure are based on data collected from stand inventories conducted in 1987 and 1996. The pine forest was reduced in area by 14.4%, from 12.39 km2 in 1954 to 10.61 km2 in 1987. Additionally, stand density and basal area were reduced by 12% and 41%, respectively, from 1987–1996. Fuelwood and timber for domestic use were not extracted at a sustainable rate between 1954 and 1996 from the communally managed pine forest in this study. A sustainable-use management plan, in which all villages surrounding the forest participate, is recommended to provide future forest products for the villages.

Palsa mires are northern mire complexes with permanently frozen peat hummocks. These are degrading throughout their distribution range, probably because of regional climatic warming. This review of the current understanding of the geographical, climatic and biological characteristics of palsa mires focuses on Europe. Recent studies have reported a drastic decrease in the extent of palsa mires in Fennoscandia; in Finland, the distribution of palsas was formerly about three times that at present. With continued or accelerated warming, as predicted for high latitudes, further extensive degradation or the wholesale disappearance of palsa mires seems inevitable. Palsa mires are known to be biologically heterogeneous environments with a rich diversity of bird species, and they are listed as a priority habitat type by the European Union. However, their role as habitats for other organisms is still poorly understood. There is urgent need for research and monitoring to assess the ecological and biological consequences of the decline of palsa mires in Europe.

Rising demand for medicinal plants has led to increased pressure on wild plant populations. This, combined with shrinking habitats, means that many species in South Africa are now facing local extinction. In 1997, a study was initiated to determine the extent of trade in medicinal plants in the South African Lowveld (the low lying plains to the east of the Drakensberg escarpment), and to investigate socio-economic factors influencing trade and resource management. Trade was not as extensive in the Lowveld as in major urban markets such as Durban or the Witwatersrand (Johannesburg and surrounding towns), either in terms of the quantity, number or range of species sold, or the numbers of people relying on the trade for an income. In markets assessed in Mpumalanga Province, 176 species were identified (71% of the vernacular names encountered in the market place), representing 69 plant families. In Limpopo, 70 different species were identified (84% of the vernacular names encountered in the market place), representing 40 families. Imports were significant in Mpumalanga (33% of the plants on offer), mainly from Mozambique. A detrended correspondence analysis showed substantial differences between species traded in Mpumalanga and those sold in Limpopo. There was little variation in the species stocked by vendors in Mpumalanga, regardless of the season, the attributes of the seller, or whether business was carried out in urban or rural areas. In contrast, there was considerable variation in the stock inventories of the Limpopo traders. Despite the lower levels of local trade, increased harvesting pressure is being experienced regionally, to meet demand in metropolitan centres such as the Witwatersrand. This study showed considerable local variation and complexities in the harvesting and marketing of medicinal plants, with both a national and an international dimension. This dual spatial scale presents both opportunities and challenges in the management of these plants, which need to be addressed simultaneously, particularly with respect to research requirements and development of predictive models and capacity. Cooperation in conservation strategies and policies is required at regional, national and international levels, while ensuring that management initiatives take into account local market conditions and the socio-economic realities facing both consumers and those who depend on the trade for their livelihoods.

In the semi-arid rangelands of the Oshana ecosystem in Northern Namibia, there are general concerns that artificial water points for domestic use contribute to the processes that lead to desertification. The processes begin in piospheres of artificial water points. Among the processes suggested to correlate with radial distance and age of water points are loss of perennial grass species, an increase in annuals, and general loss of herbaceous species richness, herbaceous biomass and grass cover, as well as an increase in forb cover and in bare ground and litter cover. Radial distance and age of artificial water points impacts were compared using these indicators with benchmarks in saline grassland and mopane landscape at the end of the wet season. Radial distance influenced herbaceous species richness, grass cover and bare ground, while the variability of the perennial:annual grass ratio, herbaceous biomass, forb and litter cover were attributed to differences between landscape types. Age of water points influenced only herbaceous species richness, while forb cover was associated more with water points than benchmarks. Forb cover was sporadic in relation to age of water points. In the Oshana ecosystem, therefore, radial-grazing distance could not be used to explain changes in the perennial:annual grass ratio. Many of the changes were explained by differences between landscape types. The mopane landscape was more vulnerable to degradation induced by artificial water points than the grassland landscape. The implication is that, in the future, greater care should be taken to space water points in the mopane landscape.

The dry tropical ecosystems are among the world's most threatened, and the dry deciduous forest of northern India is being progressively converted to scrub, savannah and grasslands through industrialization, agriculture, fuelwood collection, lopping of trees for fodder and severe grazing/browsing. This habitat destruction threatens the survival of many species. This study examined the demographic instability of tree species in 3-ha permanent plots: at five sites differing in the degree of disturbance. Based on the proportion of seedlings of a species in its total population (seedling + sapling + adults), about 52% of the total 65 species exhibited local demographic instability, and at one or more sites a single individual represented 10 species. The increase in the proportion of declining species with increase in disturbance intensity indicated that local anthropogenic pressure is responsible for the depletion. Apart from stronger protection measures, it is necessary to encourage fuelwood plantations, develop village pastures and reduce livestock numbers.

The ecological footprint (EF) can be used to investigate relationships between population, environment and development. In China, the per caput EF is estimated to have increased by 83% between 1981 (0.82 ha caput-1) and 2000 (1.49 ha caput-1), to about 1.31 times China's area (including its oceanic territory), while the ecological deficit increased from 0.066 ha caput-1 in 1981 to 0.735 ha caput-1 in 2000. Over this period, the proportions of six sub-footprint types have changed considerably: the percentages of arable, fossil energy and forest land decreased from 44.8%, 41.5% and 4.1% to 27.1%, 40.1% and 3.0%, respectively; while sea, pasture and built-up land percentages increased from 3.8%, 4.4% and 1.3% to 15.2%, 12.4% and 2.2%, respectively. The production coefficients of gross domestic product (GDP) to the EF of China increased from 584 RMB ha-1 in 1981, to 1522 RMB ha-1 in 2000, reflecting an increasing efficiency in resource use. The EF correlates positively with disposable income and expenditure, which can be described by income and expenditure elasticity. Some measures are suggested to decrease the Chinese ecological deficit on the road to sustainability.

Indigenous ecological knowledge and customary sea tenure may be integrated with marine and social science to conserve the bumphead parrotfish (Bolbometopon muricatum) in the Roviana Lagoon, Western Solomon Islands. Three aspects of indigenous ecological knowledge in Roviana were identified as most relevant for the management and conservation of bumphead parrotfish, and studied through a combination of marine science and anthropological methods. These were (1) local claims that fishing pressure has had a significant impact on bumphead parrotfish populations in the Roviana Lagoon; (2) the claim that only small bumphead parrotfish were ever seen or captured in the inner lagoon and that very small fish were restricted to specific shallow inner-lagoon nursery regions; and (3) assertions made by local divers that bumphead parrotfish predominantly aggregated at night around the new moon period and that catches were highest at that time. The research supported claims (1) and (2), but did not support proposition (3). Although the people of the Roviana Lagoon had similar conceptions about their entitlement rights to sea space, there were marked differences among regional villages in their opinions regarding governance and actual operational rules of management in the Lagoon. Contemporary differences in management strategies resulted from people's historical and spatial patterns of settlement across the landscape and adjoining seascapes, and the attendant impact of these patterns on property relations. This was crucial in distinguishing between those villages that held secure tenure over their contiguous sea estates from those that did not. Indigenous ecological knowledge served to (1) verify that the bumphead parrotfish was a species in urgent need of protection; (2) explain how different habitats structured the size distribution of bumphead parrotfish; (3) identify sensitive locations and habitats in need of protection; and (4) explain the effect of lunar periodicity on bumphead parrotfish behaviour and catch rates. Secure customary sea tenure identified locations best suited to bumphead parrotfish management programmes, with a greater likelihood for local participation and programme success. The information was used to establish two marine protected areas in the region for bumphead parrotfish conservation.