Epistemology, the theory of how knowledge arises, is an issue that ecologists and environmental scientists may not often consider in their work. However, beliefs about epistemology play a direct role in how they conduct research and, consciously or not, the conclusions made through analysis reflect some form of epistemology. I argue that the Popperian epistemology by which most environmental scientists are trained is generally incompatible with research on observational data and that observation-based studies can be improved by modifying Popper's notion of falsification.

Wright and Muller-Landau (2006) proposed that rural–urban migration could reduce tropical forest loss worldwide and allow secondary forest to occupy abandoned clearings, thereby reducing the expected magnitude of tropical species extinctions. However, the usefulness of this global generalization is highly dependent on its being correct for Brazilian Amazonia, which has the world's largest remaining area of tropical forest. Among the features of the deforestation process that make urbanization an unlikely mechanism for land abandonment in Brazil is the fact that most deforestation is done by ranchers rather than by shifting cultivators. A family of shifting cultivators is only capable of farming a limited area and cannot greatly expand the area it cultivates if additional land becomes available. Ranchers, by contrast, can occupy huge areas and expand their holdings when the opportunity arises. Were part of the population to leave for the cities their land would usually be bought by neighbouring ranchers who would maintain and expand the deforested landscape. As Wright and Muller-Landau (2006) predicted, their interpretations have generated considerable controversy (Brook et al. 2006; Gardner et al. 2007; Laurance 2006; Sloan 2007). Only part of this controversy will be considered here, namely the expectation that rural population in tropical areas will decline, allowing secondary forests to regrow in large areas of abandoned farmland. Specifically, the present paper will consider the applicability of the Wright/Muller-Landau hypothesis to Brazilian Amazonia.

Protected areas (PAs) have long struggled to successfully enforce compliance with their regulations. Even some of the best-funded PAs in the world face shortcomings in using enforcement as an effective deterrent to PA opposition. This suggests that traditional enforcement on its own may be insufficient for effective resource protection. Research was undertaken to understand why some would-be offenders refrain from harmful actions toward neighbouring national parks while others do not. Perceptions of the trustworthiness of PA managers were the most consistent predictors of exercised restraint on behalf of those living within the immediate vicinities of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Virgin Islands National Park and Podocarpus National Park. These trust assessments were most commonly based upon respondents' perceptions of positive personal interactions between PA managers and the public, of PA managers' receptiveness to local input, of the benefits and disadvantages associated with PA presence, and of PA officials' effective performance of their duties and equitable treatment of different groups. The study reveals trust and legitimacy as key factors related to voluntary compliance in situations where general agreement with PA regulations does not necessarily exist and provides insight into how trust and legitimacy can be developed or eroded.

Although they are used throughout the Neotropics, the impact of dogs on the composition of wildlife harvests has received little systematic attention. In the Bosawas Biosphere Reserve of Nicaragua, indigenous hunters rely heavily on dogs to locate prey. Hunting harvest data over a year-long period in two indigenous Mayangna and Miskito communities indicate that the use of hunting dogs is significantly associated with the harvests of several terrestrial mammalian species. The use of dogs is also a significant predictor of the extent to which the species composition of harvests deviates from Neotropical averages. Although dogs appear to have little effect on the sex profiles of harvested game species, the use of dogs is significantly associated with hunting in agricultural landscapes. From a conservation perspective, the disadvantages of dogs include their indiscriminate pursuit of prey species, including species that hunters would not otherwise pursue. Advantages of dogs include their relative ineffectiveness in pursuits of species that are particularly vulnerable to overhunting, such as primates and white-lipped peccaries (Tayassu pecari). Hunting dogs may be an economical option for many Neotropical societies, and their role in wildlife management plans merits increased attention from conservationists.

The sustainability of multispecies coral reef fisheries is a key conservation concern given their economic and ecological importance. Empirical estimation and numerical model analyses were conducted to evaluate exploitation status via resource reference points (or sustainability benchmarks) for coral reef fishes of the snapper-grouper complex in Puerto Rico. Mean size (L, in length) of animals in the exploited part of the population was estimated from fishery-dependent and fishery-independent size composition data and used as an indicator variable of exploitation rates. In application, fishing mortality rates estimated from L of various data sources were comparable. Of the 25 reef fish species assessed, 16 were below 30% spawning potential ratio (SPR), six were above 30% SPR, and three could not be reliably determined owing to low sample sizes. These findings indicate that a majority of snapper-grouper species in Puerto Rico are currently fished at unsustainable levels.

Fisheries in Puerto Rico and the United States (US) Virgin Islands are predominately dependent on nearshore coral reef ecosystems and have suffered from historical overfishing. The unique characteristics of reef fisheries, including strong habitat dependence, susceptibility to coastal impacts, diffuse landing sites and strong multispecies and multigear interactions suggest that standard approaches to fisheries management, especially those typically considered by the US Regional Fishery Management Councils, would not be applicable. Current management authority is split between local and federal agencies; however, there exists no uniform context and direction to current management initiatives, which results in lost efficiencies and opportunities. Proposed here is a new vision for fisheries management that takes into consideration the local ecological and socioeconomic characteristics of fishing, is compatible with regional resources and capacity, is ecosystem based and targets full stakeholder participation. Only an ecosystem-based approach can lead fisheries management out of the trap of unrealistic data collection and analysis demands, while at the same time refocusing emphasis away from attitudes and practices that promote overfishing. Management must be based on first principles regarding the desired state of the ecosystem and initiate strategies based on these principles. The key management goal is not to maximize fisheries catch, but to maintain the ecosystem in a state that will lead to sustained production. First principles would include maintaining ecosystem integrity and function, protecting all habitats and water quality, applying the precautionary approach, monitoring reference points and recognizing that production has limits. Resulting management tactics include marine reserves (to meet multiple goals), closed spawning aggregations, gear restrictions to maintain trophic balance and habitats, targeted data collection and assessments, adopting co-management practices and using ecosystem or community-based metrics. Fisheries management must fully incorporate the tools, resources and methods available within coastal zone management and other environmental agencies, while standards within those programmes must protect ecosystem health. Implementation will require attending to structural barriers inherent within existing fisheries legislation and regulations, multiple jurisdictions and the current cultures of scientists, managers and fisherfolk. Initial efforts should focus on developing a common language and frame of reference for all stakeholders.

Attempts to establish local support for wildlife and conservation through the sharing of revenues and empowerment of local communities to manage their wildlife have proliferated over the past two decades. Data from two neighbouring Maasai group ranches in the wildlife dispersal area of Amboseli and Tsavo National Parks (Kenya) indicated one ranch generated considerable wildlife revenues from a tourist operation and community trust while the other received no direct benefits from wildlife. The overall attitude to wildlife on the ranch with wildlife revenues was significantly more positive, but attitudes within the ranch varied significantly, depending on both costs from wildlife and perception of the distribution of wildlife revenues. Ordinal logistic regression analyses showed that it was not the amount of revenue received or the scale of costs from wildlife which determined people's attitudes, but simply the presence or absence of wildlife benefits. The importance of addressing inequitable distribution of benefits is emphasized.

Farmlands can be good habitat for owls and owls can benefit farmers, but pesticide use can negatively affect owls and within many regions of Africa owls are loathed owing to beliefs that they bring misfortune or death. Since 1997, a small-scale owl tourism initiative that educates farmers about owls and benefits them financially has been operating in central Kenya. Pesticide use, farmers' beliefs and knowledge about owls, and the impacts that tourism can have on farmers' attitudes and behaviour towards owls in rural Kenya were surveyed. Agricultural pests were the most serious problem facing farmers, though only 28 % of farmers said they controlled vertebrate pests using pesticides. The insecticide carbofuran was often misused to kill vertebrate pests. Common control measures were either to ‘do nothing’ or to chase pests from farms. Farmers knew of Mackinder's eagle owls living adjacent to their farms, but 68 % said they didn't adhere to the culturally negative beliefs about owls. Knowledge of owl diet amongst farmers was high (75 %). Farmers who benefited from owl tourism were more likely to know more about owl diet and habits. Where farmers gained financial benefits from tourism or knew more about owls, they were more likely to categorize owls as ‘good’, but farmers who knew about owl diet were more likely to use pesticides or kill owl prey on their farms. Though knowledge of owls did not have a positive effect on farmers' behaviour toward owls, this was probably the result of a lack of ecological literacy rather than any deliberate antagonism toward owls. Financial rewards are very important to poor farmers, but may not result in actions that enhance species conservation unless farmers have a basic understanding of ecological processes.

Humans can impact coral reef fishes directly by fishing, or indirectly through anthropogenic degradation of habitat. Uncertainty about the relative importance of those can make it difficult to develop and build consensus for appropriate remedial management. Relationships between fish assemblages and human population density were assessed using data from 18 locations widely spread throughout the Main Hawaiian Islands (MHI) to evaluate the significance of fishing as a factor potentially driving fish trends on a regional scale. Fish biomass in several groups was negatively correlated with local human population density and a number of lines of evidence indicate that fishing was the prime driver of those trends. First, declines were consistently evident among fish groups targeted by fishers, but not among lightly fished or non-target groupings, which indicates that declines in target groups were not simply indicative of a general decline in habitat quality along human population gradients. Second, proximity to high human populations was not associated with low fish biomass where shoreline structure prevented ready access by fishers. Relatively remote and inaccessible locations within the MHI had 2.1–4.2 times the biomass of target fishes compared to accessible and populous locations, and may therefore function as partial refugia. However, stocks in those areas were clearly far from pristine, as biomass of large predators was more than an order of magnitude lower than at more intact ecosystems elsewhere in the Pacific.