Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-fscjk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T08:24:00.324Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Experimental methods for environment and development economics

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 August 2009

MARIAH D. EHMKE  and
JASON F. SHOGREN
MARIAH D. EHMKE
Affiliation:
Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural and Applied Economics, University of Wyoming
JASON F. SHOGREN
Affiliation:
Stroock Professor, Department of Economics and Finance, University of Wyoming, 1000 University Ave, Dept 3985, Laramie, WY 82071, USA and the King Carl XVI Gustaf Professor, Umeå University. Email: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Many poor countries remain trapped in a cycle of poverty and environmental degradation. Understanding how people react to existing and proposed solutions most likely can be improved using the methods of experimental economics. Experiments provide researchers a method to test theory, look for patterns of behavior, testbed economic institutions and incentives, and to educate people. Herein we explore how experimental economics has been used and could be used to help guide decision making to increase prosperity without overexploiting the resource base and environmental assets needed for basic survival.

Type
Research Article
Information
Environment and Development Economics , Volume 14 , Issue 4 , August 2009 , pp. 419 - 456
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abbink, K., Irlenbusch, B., and Renner, E. (2006), ‘Interest rates in group lending: a behavioural investigation’, Pacific Economic Review 11: 185–199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alpizar, F. and Carlsson, F. (2003), ‘Policy implications and analysis of the determinants of travel mode choice: an application of choice experiments to metropolitan Costa Rica’, Environment and Development Economics 8: 603–620.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alvard, M. (2004), ‘The ultimatum game, fairness, and cooperation among big game hunters’, in Henrich, J. et al. . (eds), Foundations of Human Society: Economic Experiments and Ethonographic Evidence from Fifteen Small-scale Societies, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 413–435.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amman, H. and Duraiappah, A. (2004), ‘Land tenure and conflict resolution: a game theoretic approach in the Narok District in Kenya’, Environment and Development Economics 9: 383–408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, L. and Stafford, S. (2003), ‘Punishment in a regulatory setting: experimental evidence from the VCM’, Journal of Regulatory Economics 24: 91–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andreoni, J., Harbaugh, W., and Vesterlund, L. (2003), ‘The carrot or the stick: rewards, punishment, and cooperation’, American Economic Review 93: 893–902.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashraf, N., Karlan, D., and Yin, W. (2006), ‘Tying Odysseus to the mast: evidence from a commitment savings product in the Philippines’, Quarterly Journal of Economics 121: 673–697.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barbier, E. (2005), Natural Resources and Economic Development, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bardsley, N. (2007), ‘Dictator game giving: altruism or artefact?’, Experimental Economics in press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barr, A. (2002), ‘The functional diversity and spillover effects of social capital’, Journal of African Economics 11: 90–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barr, A. (2003), ‘Trust and expected trustworthiness: experimental evidence from Zimbabwean villages’, Economic Journal 113: 614–630.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barr, A. and Kinsey, B. (2002), ‘Do men really have no shame?’, CSAE WPS/2002-05, University of Oxford, Oxford, England.Google Scholar
Barr, A., Lindelow, M., and Serneels, P. (2004), ‘To serve the community or oneself: the public servant's dilemma’, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3187, Washington, DC.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barton, D. and Mourato, S. (2003), ‘Transferring the benefits of avoided health effects from water pollution between Portugal and Costa Rica’, Environment and Development Economics 8: 351–371.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Becker, G. (1968), ‘Crime and punishment: an economic approach’, Journal of Political Economy. 76: 169–217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berg, J., Dickhaut, J., and McCabe, K. (1995), ‘Trust, reciprocity, and social history’, Games and Economic Behavior 10: 122–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bertrand, M., Djankov, S., Hanna, R., and Mullainathan, S. (2006), ‘Obtaining a driving license in India: an experimental approach to studying corruption’, Paper presented at the 2006 Allied Association Meetings, Boston, MA.Google Scholar
Bhatia, M. (2005), ‘From evidence to calibration for starting point bias: willingness to pay for treated mosquito nets in Gujarat, India’, Applied Economics 37: 1–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Binswanger, H. (1980), ‘Attitudes toward risk: experimental measurement in rural India’, American Journal of Agricultural Economics 62: 395–407.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Block, M. and Gerety, V. (1995), ‘Some experimental evidence on differences between student and prisoner reactions to monetary penalty and risk’, Journal of Legal Studies 24: 123–138.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bohm, P. (2003), ‘Experimental evaluations of policy instruments’, in Mäler, K.-G. and Vincent, J. (eds), Handbook of Environmental Economics, vol. 1, Amsterdam: North-Holland, pp. 437–460.Google Scholar
Bohm, P. and Carlén, B. (1999), ‘Emission quota trade among the few: laboratory evidence of joint implementation among committed countries’, Resource and Energy Economics 21: 43–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Botelho, A., Harrison, G., Costa, L.M. Pinto, Rutström, E., and Veiga, P. (2005), ‘Discounting in developing countries: a pilot experiment in Timor-Leste’, Working Paper, University of Central Florida.Google Scholar
Bowles, S. (1998), ‘Endogenous preferences: the cultural consequences of markets and other economic institutions’, Journal of Economic Literature 36: 75–111.Google Scholar
Camerer, C., Loewenstein, G., and Weber, M. (1989), ‘The curse of knowledge in economic settings: an experimental analysis’, Journal of Political Economy 97: 1232–1254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cameron, L., Chaudhur, A., Erkal, N., and Gangadharan, L. (2005), ‘Do attitudes towards corruption differ across cultures? Experimental evidence from Australia, India, Indonesia, and Singapore’, Working Paper, University of Melbourne, Melbourne.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cardenas, J.C., Stranlund, J., and Willis, C. (2000), ‘Local environmental control and institutional crowding-out’, World Development 28: 1719–1733.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carpenter, J.P. (2007), ‘The demand for punishment’, Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 62: 522–542.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carpenter, J. and Cardenas, J.C. (2006), ‘Behavioral development economics: lessons from field labs in the developing world’, Journal of Development Economics (forthcoming).Google Scholar
Carpenter, J., Daniere, A., and Takahashi, L. (2004), ‘Cooperation, trust, and social capital in Southeast Asian urban slums’, Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 55: 533–551.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cason, T. (1995), ‘An experimental investigation of the seller incentives in the EPA's emission trading auction’, American Economic Review 85: 905–922.Google Scholar
Cason, T. and Gangadharan, L. (2004), ‘Auction design for voluntary conservation programs’, American Journal of Agricultural Economics 86: 1211–1217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cason, T., Gangadharan, L., and Duke, C. (2003), ‘A laboratory study of auctions for reducing non-point source pollution’, Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 46: 446–471.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cason, T., Saijo, T., and Yamato, T. (2002), ‘Voluntary participation and spite in public good provision experiments: an international comparison’, Experimental Economics 5: 133–153.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cherry, T., Crocker, T., and Shogren, J. (2003), ‘Rationality spillovers’, Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 45: 63–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cherry, T., Kroll, S., and Shogren, J. (eds.) (2008), Environmental Economics, Experimental Methods, London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Cherry, T. and Shogren, J. (2005), ‘Costly Coasean bargaining and insecure property rights’, Environmental and Resource Economics 31: 349–367.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coase, R. (1960), ‘The problem of social cost’, Journal of Law and Economics 3: 1–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crocker, T. (1966), ‘The structuring of atmospheric pollution control systems’, in Wolozin, H. (ed.), The Economics of Air Pollution, New York: Norton, pp. 61–86.Google Scholar
Crocker, T., Shogren, J., and Turner, P. (1998), ‘Incomplete beliefs and nonmarket valuation’, Resource and Energy Economics 20:139–162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Croson, R. and Buchan, N. (1999), ‘Gender and culture: international experimental evidence from trust games’, American Economic Review 89: 386–391.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dasgupta, P. and Mäler, K.-G. (1997), ‘The resource basis of production and consumption: an economic analysis’, in Dasgupta, P. and Mäler, K.-G. (eds), The Environment and Emerging Development Issues, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 1–32.Google Scholar
Davis, D.D. and Holt, C.A. (1993), Experimental Economics, Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Degenne, A. and Forsé, M. (1999), Introducing Social Networks, Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dinar, A., Howitt, R., Murphy, J., Rassenti, S., and Smith, V.L. (2000), ‘The design of “smart” water market institutions using laboratory experiments’, Environmental and Resource Economics 17: 375–394.Google Scholar
Duflo, E. (2005), ‘Field Experiments in Development Economics’, Working paper, MIT, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
Duflo, E., Glennerster, R., and Kremer, M. (2006), ‘Randomization in development economic research: a toolkit’, Working paper, MIT, Cambridge, MA.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eggert, H. and Martinsson, P. (2004), ‘Are commercial fishers risk-lovers?’, Land Economics 80: 550–560.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ehmke, M., Lusk, J., and List, J. (forthcoming), ‘Is hypothetical bias a universal phenomenon? A multi-national investigation’, Land Economics.Google Scholar
Ensminger, J. (2001), ‘Reputations, trust, and the principal agent problem’, in Cook, K. (ed.), Trust in Society, Volume II, New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Ensminger, J. (2004), ‘Market integration and fairness’, in Henrich, J. et al. . (eds), Foundations of Human Society: Economic Experiments and Ethonographic Evidence from Fifteen Small-scale Societies, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 356–381.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fehr, E. and Gächter, S. (2000), ‘Cooperation and punishment in public goods experiments’, American Economic Review 90: 980–994.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feld, L. and Tyran, J.-R. (2002), ‘Tax evasion and voting: an experimental analysis’, Kyklos 55: 197–222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fogel, R. (2004), The Escape from Hunger and Premature Death, 1700–2100: Europe, America, and the Third World, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frederick, S., Loewenstein, G., and O'Donoghue, T. (2002), ‘Time discounting and time preference: a critical review’, Journal of Economic Literature 40: 351–401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gebremedhin, B., Pender, J., and Tesfay, G. (2003), ‘Community natural resource management: the case of woodlots in northern Ethiopia’, Environment and Development Economics 8: 129–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gneezy, U. and Rustichini, A. (2000), ‘A fine is a price’, Journal of Legal Studies 26: 1–17.Google Scholar
Godoy, R., Kirby, K., and Wilkie, D. (2001), ‘Tenure security, private time preference, and use of natural resources among Lowland Bolivian Amerindians’, Ecological Economics 38: 105–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greig, F. (2005), ‘Gender and the voluntary provision of public goods: evidence from a slum in Nairobi, Kenya’, Paper presented at the Regional Economic Science Association Meetings, Tucson, Arizona.Google Scholar
Gurven, M. (2004), ‘Does market exposure affect economic game behavior? the ultimatum game and the public goods game among the Tsimane’ of Bolivia’, in Henrich, J. et al. . (eds), Foundations of Human Society: Economic Experiments and Ethonographic Evidence from Fifteen Small-scale Societies, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 194–231.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haab, T. and McConnell, K. (2002), Valuing Environmental and Natural Resources, Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing, Inc.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hanley, N. and Spash, C. (1993), Cost–Benefit Analysis, Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing, Inc.Google Scholar
Hanley, N., Shogren, J., and White, B. (2007), Environmental Economics: Theory and Practice, 2nd edition, London: Palgrave.Google Scholar
Harrison, G., Lau, M., and Williams, M. (2002), ‘Estimating individual discount rates in Denmark: a field experiment’, American Economic Review 92: 1606–1617.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harrison, G. and List, J. (2004), ‘Field experiments’, Journal of Economic Literature 42: 1013–1059.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayek, F. (1967), Studies in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics, Chicago: University of Chicago.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henrich, J. (2000), ‘Does culture matter in economic behavior? Ultimatum game bargaining among the Machieguenga of the Peruvian Amazon’, American Economic Review 90: 973–979.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henrich, J., Boyd, R., Bowles, S., Camerer, C., Fehr, E., Gintis, H., and McElreath, R. (2001), ‘In search of Homo economicus: behavioral experiments in 15 small-scale societies’, American Economic Review 91: 73–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoffman, E. and Spitzer, M. (1982), ‘The Coase theorem: some experimental tests’, Journal of Law and Economics 25: 73–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hofstede, G. (1980), Cultures Consequences, Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Hofstede, G. (1991), Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, United Kingdom: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Holden, S., Shiferaw, B., and Wik, M. (1998), ‘Poverty, market imperfections and time preferences: of relevance for environmental policy’, Environment and Development Economics 3: 105–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holt, C. and Laury, S. (2002), ‘Risk aversion and incentive effects’, The American Economic Review 92: 1644–1655.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horan, R., Shortle, J., and Abler, D. (2002), ‘Ambient taxes under m-dimensional choice sets, heterogeneous expectations, and risk aversion’, Environmental and Resource Economics 21: 189–202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johansson-Stenman, O., Mahmud, M., and Martinsson, P. (2008), ‘Trust and religion: experimental evidence from Bangladesh’, Economica (forthcoming).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kagel, J. and Roth, A. (eds) (1995), Handbook of Experimental Economics, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kahneman, D. and Tversky, A. (eds) (2000), Choices, Values, and Frames, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karlan, D. (2005), ‘Using experimental economics to measure social capital and predict financial decisions’, American Economic Review 95: 1688–1699.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirigia, J. (1998), ‘Cost–utility analysis of schistosomiasis intervention strategies in Kenya’, Environment and Development Economics 3: 319–346.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klitgaard, R. (1988), Controlling Corruption, Los Angeles: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knack, S. and Keefer, P. (1997), ‘Does social capital have an economic payoff? A cross-country investigation’, Quarterly Journal of Economics 112: 1251–1288.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knetsch, J. (1997), ‘Evaluation and environmental policies: recent behavioural findings and further implications’, in Dragun, A. and Jakobsson, K. (eds), Sustainability and Global Environmental Policy: New Perspectives, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, pp. 193–212.Google Scholar
Kroll, S., Cherry, T., and Shogren, J. (2007), ‘Voting, punishment and public goods’, Economic Inquiry 45: 557–570.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ledyard, J. (1995), ‘Public goods: a survey of experimental research’, in Kagel, J.H. and Roth, A.E. (eds), The Handbook of Experimental Economics, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Levine, R. and Norenzayan, A. (1999), ‘The pace of life in 31 countries’, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 30: 178–205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levitt, S. and List, J. (2008), ‘Homo economicus evolves’, Science 319: 909–910.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
List, J. and Shogren, J. (1998), ‘Calibration of the differences between actual and hypothetical valuations in a field experiment’, Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 72: 615–625.Google Scholar
Maital, S. and Maital, S. (1977), ‘Time preference, delay of gratification and the intergenerational transmission of economic inequality: a behavioral theory of income distribution’, in Ashenfelter, O. and Oates, W. (eds), Essays In Labor Market Analysis, New York: Halstead Press.Google Scholar
Masclet, D., Noussair, C., Tucker, S., and Villeval, M.-C. (2003), ‘Monetary and nonmonetary punishment in the voluntary contributions mechanism’, American Economic Review 93: 366–380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mason, C. and Phillips, O. (1997), ‘Mitigating the tragedy of the commons through cooperation: an experimental evaluation’, Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 34: 148–172.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miguel, E. and Gugerty, M. (2005), ‘Ethnic diversity, social sanctions, and public goods in Kenya’, Journal of Public Economics 89: 2325–2368.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Board (2005), Ecosystems and Human Well-Being, Findings of the Condition and Trends Working Group, vols. I–IV, Washington, DC: Island Press.Google Scholar
Mullainathan, S. (2004), ‘Development economics through the lens of psychology’, World Bank Working Paper, Report No. 28974.Google Scholar
Mullainathan, S. and Thaler, R. (2000), ‘Behavioral economics’, MIT Department of Economics Working Paper No. 00–27.Google Scholar
Murphy, J. and Cardenas, J.-C. (2004), ‘An experiment on enforcement strategies for managing a local environment resource’, Journal of Economic Education 35: 47–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murphy, J., Dinar, A., Howitt, R., Rassenti, S., and Smith, V.L. (2000), ‘The design of ‘smart’ water market institutions using laboratory experiments’, Environmental and Resource Economics 17: 375–394.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neumayer, E. (2005), ‘Does high indebtedness increase natural resource exploitation?’ Environment and Development Economics 10: 119–125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Connor, D. (1999), ‘Applying economic instruments in developing countries: from theory to implementation’, Environment and Development Economics 4: 91–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ostrom, E., Walker, J., and Gardner, R. (1992), ‘Covenants with and without a sword? Self-governance is possible’, American Political Science Review 86: 404–417.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ostrom, E., Gardner, R., and Walker, J. (1994), Rules, Games, and Common-Pool Resources, Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parkhurst, G. and Shogren, J. (2007), ‘Spatial incentives to protect ecosystem services’, Ecological Economics 64: 344–355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pearce, D., Barbier, E., and Markandya, A. (1990), Sustainable Development: Economics and Environment in the Third World, London: Edgar Elgar.Google Scholar
Plott, C. (1983), ‘Externalities and corrective policies in experimental markets’, Economic Journal 93: 106–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plott, C. (1989), ‘An updated review of industrial organization applications of experimental methods’, in Schmalensee, R. and Willig, R. (eds), Handbook of Industrial Organization, vol. II, Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers, pp. 1111–1176.Google Scholar
Plott, C. (1994), ‘Market architectures, institutional landscapes and testbed experiments’, Economic Theory 4: 3–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plott, C. and Zeiler, K. (2007), ‘Exchange asymmetries incorrectly interpreted as evidence of endowment effect theory and prospect theory?’, American Economic Review 97: 1449–1466.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raiffa, H. (1982), The Art and Science of Negotiation, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Rhoads, T. and Shogren, J. (2003), ‘Regulation through collaboration: final authority and information symmetry in environmental Coasean bargaining’, Journal of Regulatory Economics 24: 63–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robinson, E. (2005), ‘Reassessing the interaction between investment and tenure uncertainty’, Environment and Development Economics 10: 143–157.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roth, A. (2006), ‘Laboratory vs. field experiments: what can we learn?’, Comments on Levitt–List paper, Roundtable discussion, ASSA meetings, Boston, available at: http://kuznets.fas.harvard.edu/~aroth/critiques%20of%20experimental%20econ.htmlGoogle Scholar
Roth, A., Prasnikar, V., Okuno-Fujiwara, M., and Zamir, S. (1991), ‘Bargaining and market behavior in Jerusalem, Ljubljana, Pittsburgh, and Tokyo: an experimental study’, American Economic Review 81: 1068–1095.Google Scholar
Rubinstein, A. (2006), ‘Comments on behavioral economics’, in Blundell, R., Newey, W. K., and Persson, T. (eds), Advances in Economic Theory, 2005 World Congress of the Econometric Society, vol. II, Cambridge University Press, pp. 246–254.Google Scholar
Schechter, L. (2007), ‘Traditional trust measurement and the risk confound: an experiment in rural Paraguay’, Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 62: 272–292.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sen, A. (1999), Development as Freedom, New York: Alfred A. Knopf.Google Scholar
Shogren, J. (1989), ‘Fairness in bargaining needs a context: an experimental examination of loyalty’, Economics Letters 31: 319–323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shogren, J. (2006a), ‘A rule of one’, American Journal of Agricultural Economics 88: 1147–1159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shogren, J. (2006b), ‘Experimental methods and valuation’, in Mäler, K.-G. and Vincent, J. (eds), Handbook of Environmental Economics, vol. II, Amsterdam: North-Holland, pp. 969–1027.Google Scholar
Shogren, J. and Nowell, C. (1992), ‘Economics and ecology: a comparison of experimental methodologies and philosophies’, Ecological Economics 5: 101–126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shogren, J. and Taylor, L. (2008), ‘On behavioral environmental economics’, Review of Environmental Economics and Policy (forthcoming)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, V.L. (1982), ‘Microeconomic systems as an experimental science’, American Economic Review 72: 923–955.Google Scholar
Smith, V.L. (2003), ‘Constructivist and ecological rationality in economics’, American Economic Review 93: 465–508.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sturm, B. and Weimann, J. (2006), ‘Experiments in environmental economics and some close relatives’, Journal of Economic Surveys 20: 419–457.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Susskind, L., Levy, P., and Thomas-Larmer, J. (2000), Negotiating Environmental Agreements, Washington, DC: Island Press.Google Scholar
Townsend, R. (1994), ‘Risk and insurance in village india’, Econometrica 62: 539–591.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tracer, D. (2004), ‘Market integration, reciprocity, and fairness in rural Papua New Guinea: results from a two-village ultimatum game experiment’, in Henrich, J. et al. . (eds), Foundations of Human Society: Economic Experiments and Ethonographic Evidence from Fifteen Small-scale Societies, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 232–259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vyrastekova, J. and van Soest, D. (2008), ‘On the (in)effectiveness of rewards in sustaining cooperation’, Experimental Economics 11: 53–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walker, J. and Gardner, R. (1992), ‘Probabilistic destruction of common-pool resources: experimental evidence’, Economic Journal 102: 1149–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walker, J.M., Gardner, R., Herr, A., and Ostrom, E. (2000), ‘Collective choice in the commons: experimental results on proposed allocation rules and votes’, Economic Journal 110: 212–234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weber, E. and Hsee, C. (1998), ‘Cross-cultural differences in risk perception, but cross-cultural similarities in attitudes towards perceived risk’, Management Science 44: 1205–1217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whittington, D. (2002), ‘Improving the performance of contingent valuation studies in developing countries’, Environmental and Resource Economics 22: 323–367.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wik, M., Aragie Kebede, T., Bergland, O., and Holden, S. (2004), ‘On the measurement of risk aversion from experimental data’, Applied Economics 36: 2443–2451.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winters, P., Crissman, C., and Espinosa, P. (2004), ‘Inducing the adoption of conservation technologies: lessons from the Ecuadorian Andes’, Environment and Development Economics 9: 695–720.CrossRefGoogle Scholar