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Music of the Clocks and Spheres: Mozart and Haydn's Experiments with Time

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 September 2024

Peter Pesic
Peter Pesic*
Affiliation:
St John's College, Santa Fe, NM, USA
*
[email protected]
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Abstract

Compositions for musical clocks made possible a newly objective exploration of the relationship between music and time. Works by George Frideric Handel, Wilhelm Friedemann Bach and Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach reflected the absolute and uniform flow of Newtonian time. In contrast, Leopold Mozart's clock music alternated between two different metres and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart used more complex tempo ratios in a musical installation (k608) built around a dramatically illuminated pendulum. Repeated thousands of times, this installation pitted clock against music, in effect providing a new kind of experiment that favoured relative Leibnizian time over uniform Newtonian time. As if responding to k608, Joseph Haydn incorporated his own clock music into his Symphony No. 101 in order to underline, yet then to stop, time, while Schubert's Fantasy in F minor, d940, brought these temporal experiments into a new realm of intimate musical experience.

Keywords

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozartmusical clocktimeJoseph HaydnFranz Schubert
Type
Article
Information
Eighteenth-Century Music , Volume 21 , Issue 2 , September 2024 , pp. 157 - 185
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Copyright © The Author(s), 2024. Published by Cambridge University Press

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Footnotes

I particularly thank Helmut Kowar for generously sharing his expert knowledge of musical clockwork, especially the extant instruments for which Mozart and Haydn composed. His careful comments gave me invaluable guidance and saved me from many misunderstandings. I am grateful to Christopher Hasty, Annette Richards and Rebecca Wolf for their interest and enthusiasm, as I am also to David Forrest, who kindly helped me with Figure 4. My thanks also to W. Dean Sutcliffe and David R. M. Irving, along with two anonymous reviewers, for their very helpful criticisms and suggestions.

References

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3 Grant, Beating Time, 128–129.

4 Grant, Beating Time, 127.

5 As stated, for instance, by Clark, Suzannah and Rehding, Alexander, eds, Music in Time: Phenomenology, Perception, Performance (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Department of Music, 2016), 1Google Scholar.

6 Hasty, Christopher, Meter as Rhythm (New York: Oxford University Press, 2020), 26CrossRefGoogle Scholar. The claim that music is ‘the art of time par excellence’ (‘l'art du temps par excellence’) was made by Brelet, Gisèle, Le temps musical: essai d'une esthétique nouvelle de la musique (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1949), 25Google Scholar. Unless otherwise indicated, all translations are my own.

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11 Karol Berger, Bach's Cycle, Mozart's Arrow: An Essay on the Origins of Musical Modernity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007).

12 Hasty, Meter as Rhythm, 12.

13 See Christopher Hasty, ‘Time’, in The Oxford Handbook of Western Music and Philosophy, ed. Tomás McAuley, Nanette Nielsen, Jerrold Levinson and associate editor Ariana Phillips-Hutton (New York: Oxford University Press, 2020), 849–919.

14 See Alfred Chapuis, Automata: A Historical and Technological Study (Neuchâtel: Éditions du Griffon, 1958); Arthur W. J. G. Ord-Hume, Clockwork Music: An Illustrated History of Mechanical Musical Instruments from the Musical Box to the Pianola, from Automaton Lady Virginal Players to Orchestrion (London: Allen and Unwin, 1973); Emily Iuliano Dolan, ‘The Origins of the Orchestra Machine’, Current Musicology 76 (2003), 7–23; Jan Jaap Haspels, ‘Mozart and Automatic Music’, in Mozart and the Netherlands: A Bicentenarian Retrospect, ed. Arie Peddemors and Leo Samama (Zutphen: Walburg Pers, 2003), 113–125; Myles Jackson, ‘Physics, Machines, and Musical Pedagogy in Nineteenth-Century Germany’, History of Science 42 (2004), 371–418; Myles W. Jackson, ‘Music and Physics: A Cultural, Interdisciplinary History’, Berichte zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte 31/2 (2008), 94–112; Paola Dessi, ‘Organi, orologi e automi musicali: oggetti sonori per il potere’, Acta musicologica 82/1 (2010), 21–47; Katherine Maree Hirt, When Machines Play Chopin: Musical Spirit and Automation in Nineteenth-Century German Literature (New York: de Gruyter, 2010); Helmut Kowar, ‘Der Geist in der Maschine – die Faszination alter Musikautomaten’, Anzeiger der Philosophisch-Historische Klasse der Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften 145/1 (2010), 169–180; Rebecca Wolf, Friedrich Kaufmanns Trompeterautomat: Ein musikalisches Experiment um 1810 (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 2011); Aurélia Gaillard, ed., L'automate: modèle, métaphore, machine, merveille. Actes du colloque internationale de Grenoble, 19–21 mars 2009 (Pessac: Presses universitaires de Bordeaux, 2013); and Michael Demson and Christopher R. Clason, Romantic Automata: Exhibitions, Figures, Organisms (Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 2020). For a bibliography and survey (to 1996) see Helmut Kowar, Mechanische Musik: Eine Bibliographie und eine Einführung in systematische und kulturhistorische Aspekte mechanischer Musikinstrumente (Vienna: Vom Pasqualatihaus, 1996).

15 See the chapters contained in Zyklus und Prozess: Joseph Haydn und die Zeit, ed. Marie Agnes Dittrich, Reinhard Kapp and Martin Eybl (Vienna: Böhlau, 2012).

16 For the text of ‘Die Zeit’ (May 1813) see Otto Erich Deutsch, Franz Schubert: Die Dokumente seines Lebens und Schaffens (Munich: G. Müller, 1900), 18, and Deutsch, The Schubert Reader: A Life of Franz Schubert in Letters and Documents, trans. Eric Blom (New York: Norton, 1947), 31–32. His earliest extant autograph of any kind is a letter of 24 November 1812 asking Ferdinand (presumably his brother) for money.

17 Timaeus 37d; Plato, Complete Works, ed. John M. Cooper and D. S. Hutchinson (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1997), 1241.

18 Republic 617b; Plato, Complete Works, ed. Cooper and Hutchinson, 1220; see Peter Pesic, Polyphonic Minds: Music of the Hemispheres (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2017), 141–143.

19 Physics 220b33; Aristotle, The Complete Works of Aristotle, ed. Jonathan Barnes, two volumes (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), volume 1, 374.

20 Isaac Newton, Philosophiæ naturalis principia mathematica (London: Royal Society, 1687), 5, trans. I. Bernard Cohen and Anne Whitman in Isaac Newton, The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 408.

21 For an insightful discussion of Newtonian versus Leibnizian views in a musical context see Roger Mathew Grant, ‘Situating Time in Haydn's Die Schöpfung’, in Zyklus und Prozess, ed. Dittrich, Kapp and Eybl, 97–115.

22 Leibniz, fourth and fifth letters to Samuel Clarke in Samuel Clarke, A Collection of Papers, Which Passed between the Late Learned Mr. Leibnitz, and Dr. Clarke (London: J. Knapton, 1717), 101, 183.

23 The second clockwork mechanism (separate from that driving the clock proper) is noted by Neal Zaslaw, ‘Music for Mechanical Instruments’, in The Cambridge Mozart Encyclopedia, ed. Cliff Eisen and Simon P. Keefe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 282.

24 Charles Rosen, The Classical Style: Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, expanded edition (New York: Norton, 1998), 44, 57.

25 See Ord-Hume, Clockwork Music, and Arthur W. J. G. Ord-Hume, Joseph Haydn and the Mechanical Organ (Cardiff: University College Cardiff Press, 1982), 19–25.

26 See Marie Cornaz, ‘The Discovery of Joseph Haydn's Original Manuscript for the Pieces Hob. XIX:1 and Hob. XIX:2’, Haydn-Studien 10/1 (2010), 17–24; Sonja Gerlach, ‘Haydn's Works for Musical Clock (Flötenuhr): Problems of Authenticity, Grouping, and Chronology’, in Haydn Studies: Proceedings of the International Haydn Conference, Washington, D. C., 1975, ed. Jens Peter Larsen, Howard Serwer and James Webster (New York: Norton, 1981), 126–129; Sonja Gerlach and George R. Hill, ‘Stücke für das Laufwerk (Flötenuhrstücke)’, Joseph Haydn Werke, series 21 (Munich: Henle, 1984), i–xiv; Sonja Gerlach, ‘Haydns Flötenuhrstücke: Überlegungen und Ergänzungen auf Basis neuer Quellenfunde’, Haydn-Studien 10/1 (2010), 25–54. Regarding Niemecz see Helmut Kowar, ‘P. Primitivus Niemecz (1750–1806): Seine “musikalischen Spieluhren und Maschinen”’, Das mechanische Musikinstrument 38/115 (2012), 7–13. See also Helmut Kowar, ‘Musik als Experiment?: Zu Haydns Stücken “für das Laufwerk”’, in Zyklus und Prozess, ed. Dittrich, Kapp and Eybl, 294.

27 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, letter of 3 October 1790, Digitale Mozart-Edition [DME] Briefe und Dokumente, https://dme.mozarteum.at/DME/briefe/ (21 March 2024).

28 Zaslaw, ‘Music for Mechanical Instruments’, 281–282.

29 See Haspels, ‘Mozart and Automatic Music’, 122–123.

30 Leopold Mozart, ed., Der Morgen und der Abend (Augsburg: Lotter, 1759).

31 See Haspels, ‘Mozart and Automatic Music’, 120.

32 Gabriele Hatwagner, ‘Die Lust an der Illusion – über den Reiz der “Scheinkunstsammlung” des Grafen Deym, der sich Müller nannte’ (Mag. Phil. dissertation, Universität Wien, 2008), 33–35, https://utheses.univie.ac.at/detail/641, notes the lack of substantiation of later accounts that Deym left the service in the aftermath of a duel and speculates that this story came from a confusion with a duel actually fought by his uncle Johann Wilhelm Joseph.

33 See O. E. Deutsch, ‘Count Deym and His Mechanical Organs’, Music & Letters 29/2 (1948), 140–145.

34 Anton Pichler, Neuestes Sittengemählde von Wien (Vienna: author, 1801), as translated in Zaslaw, ‘Music for Mechanical Instruments’, 284.

35 Hatwagner, ‘Die Lust an der Illusion’, 58–61.

36 C. M. A., Beschreibung der kaiserl. königl. privilegirten: durch den Herrn Hofstatuarius Müller errichteten Kunstgallerie zu Wien (Vienna: Anton Pichler, 1797), as translated in Deutsch, ‘Count Deym’, 143. Note the alternative spelling Loudon found in some other sources.

37 According to Zaslaw, ‘Music for Mechanical Instruments’, 282. As noted by Helmut Kowar, KV608: Mozarts Allegro und Andante (Fantasie in f) für eine Orgelwalze ‘im Laudon Mausoleum’. Eine virtuelle Rekonstruktion (Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2006), the letter from Ignaz von Seyfried discussed below mentions a certain monotony in the mechanical version of k608 because it used only flute and bassoon stops.

38 From General Regulations and Orders for the Army (London: William Clowes, 1811), 93, cited in Trevor Herbert, Music and the British Military in the Long Nineteenth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 21–22. For Austrian military practice see Eugen Brixel, Gunther Martin and Gottfried Pils, Das ist Österreichs Militärmusik: Von der ‘Türkischen Musik’ zu den Philharmonikern in Uniform (Graz: Kaleidoskop, 1982), 49–71, which discusses march tempo on 131, 147 and 150–151.

39 For Mozart's letters about Laudon's earlier military campaigns (18 and 20 July 1778) see DME Briefe und Dokumente (21 March 2024). During the Serbian campaign Mozart wrote a contredanse, ‘La bataille’ (k535), and a patriotic song (k539); see Hermann Abert, W. A. Mozart, ed. Cliff Eisen, trans. Stewart Spencer (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), 1024, 1148–1149.

40 Haydn remarked that ‘the word “Laudon” would aid the sale [of a keyboard arrangement of his Symphony No. 69] more than any ten finales’. See James Webster, Haydn's ‘Farewell’ Symphony and the Idea of Classical Style: Through-Composition and Cyclic Integration in His Instrumental Music (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 237, and H. C. Robbins Landon, Haydn: Chronicle and Works, five volumes, volume 2: Haydn at Eszterháza, 1766–1790 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1978), 474.

41 H. C. Robbins Landon, 1791: Mozart's Last Year (New York: Schirmer, 1988), 39.

42 Laurence Dreyfus, ‘The Hermeneutics of Lament: A Neglected Paradigm in a Mozartian “Trauermusik”’, Music Analysis 10/3 (1991), 329–343.

43 Annette Richards, ‘Automatic Genius: Mozart and the Mechanical Sublime’, Music & Letters 80/3 (1999), 389.

44 Gianluigi de Freddy, Descrizione della città, sobborghi, e vicinanze di Vienna, three volumes (Vienna: Mattia Andrea Schmidt, 1800), volume 1, 427, with thanks to Paola Villa for help with the translation.

45 Kowar, Mozarts Allegro und Andante, 5, notes that ‘the relatively slow tempo of the Andante is probably due to the extremely fast hemidemisemiquavers. The shortest note values in Allegro are demisemiquavers. In both cases, these passages approach the limits of perceptibility, but thereby gain a certain bravura effect, which is obviously used quite deliberately for the extraordinary increase in musical expression. A slight slowdown in the playback speed would be conceivable but would stretch the Andante too much and make it too clumsy.’ (‘Das relativ langsame Tempo des Andante ist wohl durch die extrem schnellen Vierundsechzigstel bedingt. Die kürzesten Notenwerte im Allegro sind Zweiunddreißigstel. In beiden Fällen nähern sich diese Passagen den Grenzen der Wahrnehmbarkeit, gewinnen dadurch aber einen gewissen Bravour-Effekt, der offensichtlich ganz gezielt zur außerordentlichen Steigerung des musikalischen Ausdrucks eingesetzt wird. Eine geringfügige Verlangsamung der Abspielgeschwindigkeit wäre wohl denkbar, würde aber doch das Andante zu sehr dehnen und zuschwerfällig machen.’) In a private communication, he adds that ‘a slower tempo would also cause difficulties playing some passages because of insufficient wind supply’.

46 See Berger, Bach's Cycle, Mozart's Arrow.

47 This question was raised in Ludwig Misch, ‘Zur Entstehungsgeschichte von Mozarts und Beethovens Kompositionen für die Spieluhr’, Die Musikforschung 13/3 (1960), 317–323.

48 According to Zaslaw, ‘Music for Mechanical Instruments’, 283. Original from Otto Erich Deutsch, Mozart: Die Dokumente seines Lebens (Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1961), 352.

49 Kowar, Mozarts Allegro und Andante, 2–3.

50 Kowar, Mozarts Allegro und Andante, 3.

51 Kowar wonders, in Mozarts Allegro und Andante, 3, whether, though unperformable by the mechanism by itself, ‘perhaps K594 was actually heard at the opening of the Laudon Mausoleum on 23 March 1791 – possibly with “manual” assistance for the bellows – or was the new cylinder [for k608] just finished in time? Or did Niemecz recognize the problems much earlier and a cylinder for K594 was never pinned? Only new findings could clarify these questions.’ (‘erklang KV 594 vielleicht wirklich noch zur Eröffnung des Laudon Mausoleums am 23.3.1791 – möglicherweise mit “händischer” Nachhilfe an den Schöpfbälgen – oder wurde die neue Walze gerade noch rechtzeitig fertig? Oder hat Niemecz die Probleme schon weit früher erkannt, und eine Walze mit KV594 ist gar nie bestiftet worden? Nur Funde könnten diese Fragen klären.’)

52 Johann Mattheson, Kleine General-Baß-Schule (Hamburg: J. C. Kissner, 1735), 92–93, trans. in Hasty, Meter as Rhythm, 29. Leopold referred to Mattheson in his letter to Wolfgang of 11 June 1778, DME Briefe und Dokumente (21 March 2024).

53 Mozart, letter of 4 April 1787, in DME Briefe und Dokumente (21 March 2024).

54 For a discussion of a similar relativity in Haydn's canzonettas see Sarah Day-O'Connell, ‘“The Clock Still Points Its Moral to the Heart”: Singing About Time in Haydn's London’, in Zyklus und Prozess, ed. Dittrich, Kapp and Eybl, 153–178.

55 Kowar (private communication) notes that the clock may have been connected to the musical clockwork drive by a rod that merely set the music playing, but certainly did not determine its tempo.

56 Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung (25 September 1799), 878, trans. in Zaslaw, ‘Mozart's Allegro and Andante’, 332, 339.

57 As translated in Zaslaw, ‘Mozart's Allegro and Andante’, 328–329. The original letter (found by Otto Biba) is in the Archiv der Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde and appears in Hans Haselböck, ‘Mozarts Stücke für eine Orgelwalze’, in Mundus organorum: Festschrift Walter Supper zum 70. Geburtstag, ed. Alfred Reichling (Berlin: Merseburger, 1978), 145.

58 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Sämtliche Schriften und Briefe: Philosophische Schriften, volume 6: Nouveaux essais (Berlin: Akademie, 1990), 110, trans. Peter Remnant and Jonathan Francis Bennett in Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, New Essays on Human Understanding (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 11.

59 For Born's relation to Leibniz see E. P. Hamm, ‘Knowledge from Underground: Leibniz Mines the Enlightenment’, Earth Sciences History 16/2 (1997), 77–99.

60 Vincent Novello, A Mozart Pilgrimage: Being the Travel Diaries of Vincent and Mary Novello in the Year 1829 (London: Eulenburg, 1975), 170, 92.

61 For the dates of his travels see Landon, Haydn at Eszterháza, 755, and Haydn: Chronicle and Works, volume 3: Haydn in England, 1791–1795 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1976), 194. For Haydn's farewell meeting with Mozart see Haydn at Eszterháza, 754.

62 Deutsch, Mozart Dokumente, 341, trans. in Zaslaw, ‘Mozart's Allegro and Andante’, 330–331.

63 Freddy, Descrizione, volume 1, 428.

64 Zaslaw, ‘Mozart's Allegro and Andante’, 330.

65 Helmut Kowar (private communication) kindly brought this maintenance problem to my attention.

66 Landon, Haydn in England, 202; see the confirming account in Ord-Hume, Haydn and the Mechanical Organ, 97–98.

67 As noted by Landon, Haydn in England, 569–570.

68 Webster, Haydn's ‘Farewell’ Symphony, 238.

69 See Landon, Haydn in England, 569–570.

70 Donald Francis Tovey, Essays in Musical Analysis, six volumes, volume 1 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1935; London: Oxford University Press, 1972), 153–154.

71 Kowar, ‘Musik als Experiment?’, argues that Haydn's musical-clock compositions are more ‘experimental’ than Mozart's because Haydn used unusual gruppetti of ten, twelve or thirteen notes (300), concluding that ‘Haydn not only experiments with music in machines, but ultimately with us and our perception’ (‘Das Experiment stellt Haydn also nicht nur mit der Musik in dem Automaten an, sondern letztlich mit uns und unserer Perzeption’) (304). See also Ernst Strouhal, ‘Eins sein mit allem, was tickt: Bewegungskontrolle und Zeitdisziplin am Beispiel des Schachautomaten von Wolfgang von Kempelen’, in Zyklus und Prozess, ed. Dittrich, Eybl and Kapp, 275–291.

72 I here count only full bars of ‘ticking’. For comparison, the slow movement of Symphony No. 99 repeats a dotted rhythm in the lower strings during bars 77–80 and 82–84.

73 H. C. Robbins Landon and David Wyn Jones, Haydn: His Life and Music (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988), 273, also speculate that this movement ‘was prompted by the association between mechanical organ music and clocks’ and discuss Haydn's 1792–1793 pieces for musical clock.

74 Compare the dramatic interruption of the constant ‘ticking’ near the end of the finale of Symphony No. 88, bar 194.

75 Landon, Haydn in England, 202, notes that ‘for an unknown clock of 1793, Niemecz received the Finale of Symphony No. 99 in E flat, transposed into F and, of course, shortened [hXIX:32]’.

76 Landon, Haydn in England, 572–573.

77 As before, I count only complete repetitions of the iambic pattern, here amounting to sixty-one per cent of the complete section.

78 Landon, Haydn in England, 575, also reviewing the controversies about this section.

79 See Sibyl Dahms, ‘Ballet Reform and Ballet at the Mannheim Court’, in Ballet Music from the Mannheim Court, Part I: Le rendezvous; Ballet de chasse, ed. Floyd Kersey Grave (Middleton, WI: A-R Editions, 1996), xii. See also Webster, Haydn's ‘Farewell’ Symphony, 39, 52, 62–64, 350–351, and Jens Peter Larsen, Handel, Haydn, and the Viennese Classical Style (Ann Arbor: UMI, 1988), 263–268. Regarding the analysis of pauses see Youn Kim, ‘“The Voice in Silence”: Hugo Riemann's Pausenlehre and Its Psychological Implications’, Journal of Musicological Research 32/4 (2013), 287–313, and Yael Kaduri, ‘The Grand Pause and Dramatic Expansions in Haydn's “Really New” Minuets’, unpublished paper (2014) available at www.academia.edu/114021824/.

80 For example, the two bars of G. P. (130–132) that mark a dramatic pause on the dominant in the first movement of Symphony No. 96 (‘The Miracle’); for its comic possibilities see the end of the finale of his String Quartet Op. 33 No. 2 (‘The Joke’, 1781). For a thoughtful discussion of the grand pauses in Symphony No. 39 see Felix Diergarten, ‘Time Out of Joint – Time Set Right: Principles of Form in Haydn's Symphony No. 39’, Studia musicologica 51 (2010), 109–126.

81 Mozart used silent bars only in k543/i, bar 180; k543/iv, bar 107 (Symphony No. 39, 1788); k550/i, bars 43 and 226 (Symphony No. 40, 1788); and k551/i, bar 80 (Symphony No. 41, 1788, ‘Jupiter’), this last dramatizing an astonishing harmonic shift. For completeness, I note that the early k121 (207a) (formerly known as the ‘Symphony No. 51’, 1775) – the Allegro finale to the overture to La finta giardiniera (k196) – has silent bars 35, 39, 73, 155 and 159 that seem artefacts of the 3/8 metre in hypermetrical terms.

82 As translated in Landon and Jones, Haydn, 270–271. For Leopold Mozart's discussion of ‘good composition and ordering, il filo’, see his letter of 13 August 1778, DME Briefe und Dokumente (21 March 2024).

83 Alexander Wheelock Thayer, Life of Beethoven, ed. Elliot Forbes, revised edition (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967), 235–237.

84 Zaslaw, ‘Music for Mechanical Instruments’, 283.

85 John A. Rice, The Temple of Night at Schönau: Architecture, Music, and Theater in a Late Eighteenth-Century Viennese Garden (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 2006), 181–200.

86 Rice, Temple of Night, 169–170.

87 Zaslaw, ‘Music for Mechanical Instruments’, 288.

88 Wolfgang Plath, Preface to Mozart, Klaviermusik, Neue Mozart-Ausgabe, series 9, group 27, volume 2, ed. Plath, xxii (Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1982), xxii.

89 Zaslaw, ‘Mozart's Allegro and Andante’, 338.

90 Deutsch, Schubert Reader, 94, 115. Schubert may also have visited the gallery on 23 December 1818 to hear Babette Kunz sing (93–94).

91 Alfred Einstein, Schubert: A Musical Portrait (New York: Oxford University Press, 1951), 29.

92 Otto Erich Deutsch, Franz Schubert: Die Dokumente seines Lebens und Schaffens (Munich: G. Müller, 1900), 32, as translated in Deutsch, Schubert Reader, 60.

93 Plath, Preface, xxii. Zaslaw also judged that Schubert knew the four-hand version of k608: Zaslaw, ‘Mozart's Allegro and Andante’, 338.

94 It seems likely that Schubert would also have known the four-hands version of k594, though it does not figure in his Fantasy as does k608. One might therefore speculate that his Fantasy particularly emphasized the mechanical original of k608 over k594, as if Schubert's Fantasy were the ‘clockwork’ piece he never had the opportunity to write. However, no positive evidence supports this.

95 Plath, Preface, xxii.

96 As noted by Kinderman, William, ‘Schubert's Tragic Perspective’, in Schubert: Critical and Analytical Studies, ed. Frisch, Walter (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986), 75–82Google Scholar.

97 On Schubert's relation to Haydn see Pesic, Peter, ‘Haydn's Wanderer’, Haydn-Studien 8/3 (2003), 275–288Google Scholar.