Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-mlc7c Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-13T01:13:38.730Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Recent developments in language acquisition and reading research:The phonological basis of children’s reading difficulties

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 October 2015

Judith A. Bowey
Judith A. Bowey*
Affiliation:
School of Psychology, The University of Queensland
*
School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Brisbane QLD 4072, E-mail: [email protected]
Get access

Abstract

This review examines the convergence of recent developments in the fields of language and literacy development and, in particular, developments relating phonological development to both language and reading development. It begins by examining the issue of how children represent spoken words. In particular, it presents recent work arguing that, throughout early and even middle childhood, children’s representations of spoken words are reorganised as sequences of phonemes. The second section examines poor readers’ phonologicol recoding difficulties and, in particular, the contribution of phonological awareness to early reading success. This section includes an overview of phonologicol awareness training studies in “at-risk” preschool and kindergarten children. The final section examines phonologicol processing difficulties as a common underlying cause of reading dificulties.This section provides a theoretical context for practitioners to understand diverse findings relating performance on a wide range of tasks to children’s reading achievement.

Keywords

Readingdyslexiaphonological processingspeech perception
Type
Research Article
Information
The Educational and Developmental Psychologist , Volume 17 , Issue 1 , 2000 , pp. 5 - 31
Copyright
Copyright © Australian Psychological Society 2000

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adams, M.J. (1990). Beginning to read. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Ball, E.W., & Blachman, A. (1988). Phoneme segmentation training: Effect on reading readiness. Annals of Dyslexia, 38, 208–225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ball, E.W., & Blachman, A. (1991). Does phoneme awareness training in kindergarten make a difference in early word recognition and developmental spelling. Reading Research Quarterly, 26, 49–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ballinger, K. (1998). Evaluation of a pre-reading skills program designed to teach at-risk preschoolers phoneme awareness. Unpublished DPsych thesis, LaTrobe University, Victoria.Google Scholar
Bentler, P.M. (1989). EQS: Structural equations program manual. BMDP Statistical Software: Los Angeles, CA.Google Scholar
Blachman, B.A. (1997). Early intervention and phonological awareness: A cautionary tale. In Blachman, B. (Ed.), Foundations of reading acquisition and dyslexia: Implications for early intervention (pp. 409–430). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Blachman, B.A., Ball, E.W., Black, R.S., & Tangel, D.M. (1994). Kindergarten teachers develop phoneme awareness in low-income, inner-city classrooms: Does it make a difference? Reading and Writing, 6, 1–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boder, E. (1973). Developmental dyslexia: A diagnostic approach based on three atypical reading-spelling patterns. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 15, 663–687.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowey, J.A. (1994). Phonological sensitivity in novice readers and nonreaders. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 58, 134–159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowey, J.A. (1995a). On the contribution of phonological sensitivity to phonological recoding. Issues in Education, 1, 65–69.Google Scholar
Bowey, J.A. (1995b). Socioeconomic status differences in preschool phonological sensitivity and first-grade reading achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87, 476–487.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowey, J.A. (1996). On the association between phonological memory and receptive vocabulary in five-year-olds. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 63, 44–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowey, J.A. (in press-a) A case for early onset-rime sensitivity training in “at risk” preschool and kindergarten children. In Badian, N. (Ed.), Prediction and prevention of reading failure. Parkton, MD: York Press.Google Scholar
Bowey, J.A. (in press-b). Nonword repetition and young children’s receptive vocabulary: A longitudinal study. Applied Psycholinguistics.Google Scholar
Bowey, J.A. (2000a). Onset-rime and phoneme sensitivity as predictors of school entrants’ subsequent reading achievement. Manuscript in preparation.Google Scholar
Bowey, J.A. (2000b). [Letter name knowledge and phonological awareness at school entry in Queensland children not formally taught letter names]. Unpublished raw data.Google Scholar
Bowey, J.A., Cain, M.T., & Ryan, S.M. (1992). A reading-level design of phonological skills underlying fourth-grade children’s word reading difficulties. Child Development, 63, 999–1011.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowey, J.A., & Francis, J. (1991). Phonological analysis as a function of age and exposure to reading instruction. Applied Psycholinguistics, 12, 91–121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowey, J.A., McGuigan, M., & Ruschena, A. (2000, April). The association between continuous naming speed and word-reading skill is mediated by phonological processing skill. Paper presented at the Experimental Psychology Conference, Brisbane.Google Scholar
Bowey, J.A., & Patel, R.K. (1988). Metalinguistic ability and early reading achievement. Applied Psycholinguistics, 9, 367–383.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowey, J.A., & Rutherford, J. (2000). Imbalanced word reading strategies in high school students. Manuscript in preparation.Google Scholar
Bowey, J.A., & Underwood, N. (1996). Further evidence that orthographic rime usage in nonword reading increases with word-level reading proficiency. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 63, 526–562.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bradley, L., & Bryant, P.E. (1978). Difficulties in auditory organization as a possible cause of reading backwardness. Nature, 271, 746–747.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bradley, L., & Bryant, P.E. (1983). Categorizing sounds and learning to read - a causal connection. Nature, 301, 419–421.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brady, S.A. (1991). The role of working memory in reading disability. In Brady, S.A. & Shankweiler, D. (Eds.), Phonological processes in literacy: A tribute to Isabelle Y. Liberman (pp. 129–151). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Brady, S.A. (1997). Ability to encode phonological representations: An underlying difficulty of poor readers. In Blachman, B. (Ed.), Foundations of reading acquisition and dyslexia (pp. 21–47). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Brady, S., Fowler, A., Stone, B., & Winbury, N. (1994). Training phonological awareness: A study with inner-city kindergarten children. Annals of Dyslexia, 44, 26–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bryant, P. (1998). Sensitivity to onset and rhyme does predict young children’s reading: A comment on Muter, Hulme, Snowling, and Taylor (1997). Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 71, 29–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bryant, P.E., MacLean, M., Bradley, L.L., & Crossland, J. (1990). Rhyme, alliteration, phoneme detection, and learning to read. Developmental Psychology, 26, 429–438.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burnham, D.K., Earnshaw, L.J., & Clark, J.E. (1991). Development of categorical identification of native and non-native bilabial stops: Infants, children, and adults. Journal of Child Language, 18, 231–260.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burnham, D., Earnshaw-Brown, L., O’Connor, G., & Clark, J. (1999). Phonological bias in speech perception and the onset of reading. Unpublished manuscript, University of Western Sydney.Google Scholar
Byrne, B. (1998). The foundation of literacy: The child’s acquisition of the alphabetic principle. Hove, UK: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Byrne, B., & Fielding-Barnsley, R. (1991). Evaluation of a program to teach phonemic awareness to young children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 451–455.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Byrne, B., & Fielding-Barnsley, R. (1992). Sound foundations. Artamon, Australia: Leyden.Google Scholar
Byrne, B., & Fielding-Barnsley, R. (1993). Evaluation of a program to teach phonemic awareness to young children: A 1-year follow-up. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 104–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Byrne, B., & Fielding-Barnsley, R. (1995). Evaluation of a program to teach phonemic awareness to young children: A 2- and 3-year follow-up and a new preschool trial. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87, 488–503.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Byrne, B., Fielding-Barnsley, R., Ashley, L., & Larsen, K. (1997). Assessing the child’s and the environment’s contribution to reading acquisition: What we do know and what we don’t know. In Blachman, B. (Ed.), Foundations of reading acquisition and dyslexia: Implications for early intervention (pp. 265–285). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Cacace, A.T., & McFarland, D.J. (1998). Central auditory processing disorder in school-aged children: A critical review. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 41, 355–373.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Castles, A.E., & Coltheart, M. (1993). Varieties of developmental dyslexia. Cognition, 47, 149–180.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Castles, A.E., & Coltheart, M. (1996). Cognitive correlates of developmental surface dyslexia: A single case study. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 13, 25–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Castles, A., Datta, H., Gayan, J., & Olson, R.K. (1999). Varieties of developmental reading disorder: Genetic and environmental influences. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 72, 73–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Castles, A.E., Holmes, V.M., & Wong, M. (1997). Variations in spelling style among lexical and sublexical readers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 64, 98–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Catts, H.W. (1986). Speech production/phonological deficits in children who differ in reading skill. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 19, 504–518.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Catts, H.W. (1989). Speech production deficits in developmental dyslexia. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 54, 422–428.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Charles-Luce, J., & Luce, P.A. (1990). Similarity neighborhoods of words in young children’s lexicons. Journal of Child Language, 17, 205–215.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cunningham, A.E. (1990). Explicit versus implicit instruction in phonemic awareness. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 50, 429–444.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunn, L.M., & Dunn, L.M. (1981). Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test Revised. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.Google Scholar
Edwards, V.T., & Hogben, J.H. (1999). New norms for comparing children’s lexical and nonlexical reading: A further look at subtyping dyslexia. Australian Journal of Psychology, 51, 37–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ehri, L.C. (1979). Linguistic insight: Threshold of reading acquisition. In Waller, T.G. & MacKinnon, G.E. (Eds.), Reading research revisited (pp. 143–153). Columbia, OH: Merrill.Google Scholar
Ehri, L.C., & Wilce, L.S. (1986). The influence of spellings on speech: Are alveolar flaps /d /or /t/? In Yaden, D. & Templeton, S. (Eds.), Metalinguistic awareness and beginning literacy (pp. 101–114). Exeter, NH: Heinemann Educational Books.Google Scholar
Ehri, L.C., Wilce, L.S, & Taylor, B.B. (1987). Children’s categorization of short vowels in words and the influence of spellings. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 33, 393–421.Google Scholar
Fowler, A.E. (1991). How early phonological development might set the stage for phonemic awareness. In Brady, S.A. & Shankweiler, D. (Eds.), Phonological processes in literacy: A tribute to Isabelle Y. Liberman (pp. 97–117). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Freebody, P., & Byrne, B. (1988). Word-reading strategies in elementary school children: Relations to comprehension, reading time, and phonemic awareness. Reading Research Quarterly, 23, 441–453.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garlock, V.M., Walley, A.C., & Metsala, J. (1999). Age-of-acquisition, word frequency, and neighborhood density effects on spoken word recognition: Implications for the development of phoneme awareness and early reading. Unpublished manuscript, Warren Wilson College, USA.Google Scholar
Gerken, L.A. (1994). Child phonology: Past research, present questions, future directions. In Gernsbacher, M.A. (Ed.), Handbook of psycholinguistics (pp. 781–820). San Diego: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Hansen, J., & Bowey, J.A. (1994). Verbal working memory, phonological analysis skills, and reading ability in second-grade children. Child Development, 65, 938–950.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heath, S.M., & Hogben, J.H. (2000). Auditory temporal processing, phonological awareness, and oral language ability in prereaders: Can we identify children at risk for reading disability more accurately? Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist, 17(1).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horlyck, S., & Burnham, D. (November, 1999). Speech perception is constrained by learning to read; or maybe by age, or even categorisation ability. Paper presented at the meeting of the Twelfth Australian Language and Speech conference, LaTrobe University, Victoria.Google Scholar
Hurford, D.P. (1990). Training phonemic segmentation ability with a phoneme discrimination intervention in second- and third-grade children with reading disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23, 564–569.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ingram, D. (1986). Phonological development: Production. In Fletcher, P. & Garman, M. (Eds.), Language acquisition (2nd ed.; pp. 223–239). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jorm, A.F. (1983). Specific reading retardation and working memory: A review. British Journal of Psychology, 74, 311–342.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jorm, A.F., Share, D.L., Maclean, R., & Matthews, R. (1986). Cognitive factors at school entry predictive of specific reading retardation and general reading backwardness: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 27, 45–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leitao, S., Fletcher, J., & Hogben, J. (2000). Speech impairment and literacy difficulties: Underlying issues. Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist, 17(1).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewkowicz, N. (1980). Phonemic awareness training: What to teach and how to teach it. Journal of Educational Psychology, 72, 686–700.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liberman, I.Y., Shankweiler, D., Fischer, F.W., & Carter, B. (1974). Explicit syllable and phoneme segmentation in the young child. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 18, 201–212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liberman, I.Y., Shankweiler, D., Liberman, A.M., Fowler, C., & Fischer, F.W. (1977). Phonetic segmentation and recoding in the beginning reader. In Reber, A.S. & Scarborough, D.L. (Eds.), Toward a psychology of reading (pp. 207–225). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Lindamood, C.H., & Lindamood, P.C. (1975). Auditory training in depth. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.Google Scholar
Lloyd, S. (1998). The phonics handbook (3rd ed.). Jolly Learning: Chigwell, England.Google Scholar
Lovett, M.W., Borden, S.L., DeLuca, T., Lacerenza, L., Benson, N.J., & Brackstone, D. (1994). Treating the core deficits of developmental dyslexia: Evidence of transfer of learning after phonologically- and strategy-based reading training programs. Developmental Psychology, 30, 805–822.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lundberg, I., Frost, J., & Peterson, O.-P. (1988). Effects of an extensive program for stimulating phonological awareness in children. Reading Research Quarterly, 23, 263–284.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacLean, M., Bryant, P., & Bradley, L. (1987). Rhymes, nursery rhymes, and reading in early childhood. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 33, 255–281.Google Scholar
Martin, F., & Pratt, C. (in press). Nonword Reading Test. Melbourne: ACER Press.Google Scholar
McBride-Chang, C. (1996). Models of speech perception and phonological processing in reading. Child Development, 67, 1836–1856.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McBride-Chang, C., Wagner, R.K., & Chang, L. (1997). Growth modeling of phonological awareness. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 621–630.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Metsala, J.L. (1997a). An examination of word frequency and neighborhood density in the development of spoken word recognition. Memory & Cognition, 25, 47–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Metsala, J.L. (1997b). Spoken word recognition in reading disabled children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 159–169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Metsala, J.L. (1999). Young children’s phonological awareness and nonword repetition as a function of vocabulary development. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 3–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Metsala, J.L., & Walley, A.C. (1998). Spoken vocabulary growth and the segmental restructuring of lexical representations: Precursors to phonemic awareness and early reading ability. In Metsala, J.L. & Ehri, L.C. (Eds.), Word recognition in beginning literacy (pp. 89–120). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Mody, M., Studdert-Kennedy, M., & Brady, S. (1997). Speech perception deficits in poor readers: Auditory processing or phonological coding? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 64, 199–231.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morais, J., Bertelson, P., Cary, L., & Alegria, J. (1986). Literacy training and speech segmentation. Cognition, 24, 45–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morais, J., Cary, L., Alegria, J., & Bertelson, P. (1979). Does awareness of speech as a series of phones arise spontaneously? Cognition, 7, 323–331.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morgan, J., & Willows, D. (December, 1996). Early phonological awareness training for at-risk children in junior kindergarten. Paper presented at the meeting of the National Reading Conference, Charleston, SC.Google Scholar
Muter, V., Hulme, C., Snowling, M., & Taylor, S. (1997). Segmentation, not rhyming, predicts early progress in learning to read. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 65, 370–396.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nittrouer, S., & Studdert-Kennedy, M. (1987). The role of coarticulatory effects in the perception of fricatives by children and adults. Journal of Speech & Hearing Research, 30, 319–329.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O’Connor, R.E., Jenkins, J.R., & Slocum, T.A. (1995). Transfer among phonological tasks in kindergarten: Essential instructional content. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87, 202–217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pisoni, D.B., & Luce, P.A. (1987). Acoustic-phonetic representations in word recognition. Cognition, 25, 21–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rack, J.P., Snowling, M.J., & Olson, R.K. (1992). The nonword reading deficit in developmental dyslexia: A review. Reading Research Quarterly, 27, 28–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Read, C., Zhang, Y.-N., Nie, H.-Y., & Ding, B.-Q. (1986). The ability to manipulate speech sounds depends on knowing alphabetic writing. Cognition, 24, 31–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seymour, P.H.K., & Elder, L. (1986). Beginning reading without phonology. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 3, 1–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shankweiler, D., & Crain, S. (1986). Language mechanisms and reading disorders: A modular approach. Cognition, 24, 139–168.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Share, D.L. (1995). Phonological recoding and self-teaching: Sine qua non of reading acquisition. Cognition, 55, 151–218.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Share, D.L., Jorm, A.F., MacLean, R., & Matthews, R. (1984). Sources of individual differences in reading acquisition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 1309–1324.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shvachkin, N.K. (1948/1973). The development of phonemic speech perception in early childhood. In Ferguson, C.A. & Slobin, D.I. (Eds.), Studies of language development (pp. 91–127). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.Google Scholar
Stager, C.L., & Werker, J.F. (1997). Infants listen for more phonetic detail in speech perception tasks than in word-learning tasks. Nature, 388, 381–382.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stanovich, K.E. (1986). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 360–407.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stanovich, K.E. (1991). Discrepancy definitions of reading disability: Has intelligence led us astray? Reading Research Quarterly 26, 7–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stanovich, K.E. (1992). Speculations on the causes and consequences of individual differences in reading acquisition. In Gough, R.Ehri, L. & Treiman, R. (Eds.), Reading acquisition (pp. 307–342). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Stanovich, K.E., Siegel, L.S., & Gottardo, A. (1997). Converging evidence for phonological and surface types of dyslexia. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 114–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Studdert-Kennedy, M., & Mody, M. (1995). Auditory temporal perception deficits in the reading-impaired: A critical review of the evidence. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 2, 508–514.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sumbler, K., & Willows, D. (December, 1996). Phonological awareness and alphabetic coding instruction within balanced senior kindergartens. Paper presented at National Reading Conference, Charleston, SC.Google Scholar
Tallal, P. (1980). Auditory temporal perception, phonics, and reading disabilities in children. Brain & Language, 9, 182–198.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Torgesen, J.K., & Davis, C. (1996). Individual differences variables that predict response to training in phonological awareness. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 63, 1–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Torgesen, J.K., Morgan, S.T., & Davis, C. (1992). Effects of two types of phonological awareness training on word learning in kindergarten children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 364–370.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Treiman, R. (1993). Beginning to spell. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wagner, R.K., & Torgesen, J.K. (1987). The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 192–212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wagner, R.K., Torgesen, J.K., Laughon, P., Simmons, K., & Rashotte, C.A. (1993). Development of young children's phonological processing abilities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 83–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wagner, R.K., Torgesen, J.K., & Rashotte, C.A. (1994). Development of reading-related phonological processing abilities: New evidence of bidirectional causality from a latent variable longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 30, 73–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wagner, R.K., Torgesen, J.K., Rashotte, C.A., Hecht, S.A., Barker, T.A., Burgess, S.R., Donahue, J., & Garon, T. (1997). Changing relations between phonological processing abilities and word-level reading as children develop from beginning to skilled readers: A 5-year longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 33, 468–479.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walley, A.C. (1993). The role of vocabulary development in children’s spoken word recognition and segmentation ability. Developmental Review, 13, 286–350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Webster, P.E., & Plante, A.S. (1995). Productive phonology and phonological awareness in preschool children. Applied Psycholinguistics, 16, 43–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Werker, J.F., Corcoran, K.M., & Stager, C.L. (1999). Infants of 20 months can distinguish similar sounding words. Paper presented at the Ninth Annual Meeting of the Canadian Society for Brain, Behaviour, and Cognitive Science Meeting, Edmonton, Alberta.Google Scholar
Werker, J.F., & Desjardins, R.N. (1995). Listening to speech in the 1st year of life: Experiential influences on phoneme perception. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4, 77–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Werker, J.F., & Tees, R.C. (1992). The organization and reorganization of human speech perception. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 15, 377–402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whitehurst, G.J., Epstein, J.N., Angeli, A.L., Payne, A.C., Crone, D.A., & Fischel, J.E. (1994). Outcomes of an emergent literacy intervention in Head Start. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 542–555.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodcock, R.W. (1987). Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests – Revised. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.Google Scholar