Molluscs from the Middle and Upper Ordovician succession of Girvan, SW Scotland are common and diverse in some localities. The mollusc fauna consists mainly of gastropods, bivalves and various univalved molluscs (mimospirids and tergomyans), along with scarcer polyplacophorans, rostroconchs and cephalopods. The present study gives an overview of the distribution and palaeoecology of bivalves, gastropods and univalved molluscs and compares them with mollusc faunas worldwide. Gastropods, mimospirids and tergomyans are present from the Darriwilian (mid Llanvirn) onwards in both siliciclastic and carbonate facies, and increase in diversity through the Sandbian (Caradoc) and into the Katian (Ashgill). Bivalves first appeared in Girvan in the late Darriwilian (early Caradoc) in deep water siliciclastic facies; where they continued to be more abundant and diverse than in equivalent carbonate facies. Molluscs are initially Laurentian in aspect, though peri-Gondwanan faunal elements occur, particularly during the Sandbian. The pattern of bivalve and gastropod diversity found in the Ordovician of Girvan generally follows that of the known global diversity for these groups.

The High Tatra granite intrusion is an example of a Variscan syn-tectonic, tongue-shaped intrusion. In some portions of the intrusion, structures occur which appear to be of sedimentary origin. These include structures similar to graded bedding, cross-bedding, troughs and flame structures, K-feldspar-rich cumulates and magmatic breccias. Formation of these structures might be related to changing magma properties, including crystal fraction, development of a crystal mush and a decrease in magma viscosity, stimulated by influx of mafic magma and high volatile content. The suggested processes in operation are: gravity-controlled separation, magma flow segregation, deposition on the magma-chamber floor, filter pressing and density currents stimulated by tectonic activity.

%The formation of the sedimentary structures was also aided by the presence of large numbers of xenoliths that acted as a heat sink and influenced the thermal field in the intrusion, stimulating rapid cooling and crystal nucleation. Sinking xenoliths deformed the layering and, to some extent, protected the unconsolidated crystal mush from erosion by magma flowing past.

%Areas with well-developed sedimentary magmatic structures can be viewed as having involved magma rich in crystals locally forming closely-packed networks from which residual melt was extracted by filter pressing, and preserved in leucocratic pods and dykes. Interleaved, non-layered granite may be interpreted to have formed from the magma with initially low crystal fractions.

%It is suggested that the intrusion was formed from numerous magma injections representing different stages in the mixing and mingling of felsic and mafic sources. It solidified by gravitation-driven crystal accumulation and flow sorting on the magma chamber floor and on the surfaces of large numbers of xenoliths. Shear stress acting during intrusion might have influenced the formation of magmatic structures.

The western end of the Galway granite batholith demonstrates the importance of stoping as a granite emplacement process, which is currently controversial, and also of space generation by uplift of the centre of a ring complex. The granite rings are shown (with a coloured 1:25 000 geological map) to be consanguineous, near coeval, and older than the 407–410 Ma late molybdenite mineralisation. A newly-recognised Mace–Ards granite, around and injected by the Aplitic Murvey-type granite of the ring core (both lacking hornblende and titanite), has biotite–muscovite–cordierite orbs and sulphide–granite orbs, showing separation of immiscible hydrous and sulphide fluids from the late magma which, with vugs, indicates a low pressure, near-roof site. The outer ring of the Errisbeg Townland granite (ETG, the main batholith granite with K-feldspar phenocrysts), was emplaced by progressive outward stoping of the country rock metagabbro, as shown by mapping, and by chemical fractionation of feldspars, biotites and bulk rocks, to the marginal, dry, fine-grained aphyric, in part garnetiferous, highly fractionated, siliceous Murvey granite. Stoping ceased when, after previously invading dense metagabbro, the outer ring complex reached the low-density Roundstone granite, which is shown for the first time to be older than the Galway batholith. This arresting of the batholith intrusion shows that stoping was such a significant process that emplacement ceased when stoping became impossible. The inside edge of the ETG grades into the slightly later, intrusive, aphyric Carna granite, which shows inward fractionation to the wet magma of the Mace–Ards granite. The ring complex core was injected by highly fractionated, dry, Aplitic Murvey-type granite, intensely hydrothermally altered by late magmatic water. The radially outward dipping, inclined igneous layering in the ETG shows that the original ETG centre was pushed upwards by the intruded Carna granite and eroded away. The Galway granite and its nearby magmatism matches the low Ba and Sr, high Th and Rb, Scottish Cairngorm Suite and similarly has few appinitic rocks associated with it. Magmatism extended over >45 Myr from ∼425 Ma to 380 Ma. It originated by slab breakoff and consequent rise of the asthenosphere, causing deep crustal melting.

Rare clasts of limestone contained in the uppermost Carboniferous Fitzroy Tillite Formation of the Falkland Islands contain a rich Cambrian fauna of archaeocyaths together with a radiocyath and a few trilobites. Neither Cambrian strata nor limestone are present in the indigenous rock succession and the clasts are regarded as exotic erratics, introduced during the Permo-Carboniferous glaciation of southern Gondwana, prior to its Mesozoic break-up. Nineteen archaeocyath taxa have been identified, with seven (plus a radiocyath) occurring in a single clast. Trilobite identifications are less definitive, but they are compared to Yorkella and the Siberian genera Edelsteinaspis, Namanoia and Chondrinouyina. The archaeocyath fauna has an Australo–Antarctic character and the Transantarctic Mountains seem the most likely source for these unusual erratics. Most recent reconstructions of Gondwana rotate a Falklands microplate into a position between South Africa and East Antarctica. There, it is in proximity with the Eastern Cape Province, where tillites within the Permo-Carboniferous Dwyka Group are correlatives of the Fitzroy Tillite Formation, and the ‘Atlantic’ end of the Transantarctic Mountains. The Dwyka Group tillites also contain rare clasts of archaeocyathan limestone and the rotational reconstruction produces a continuity of the apparent ice-flow directions in South Africa and the Falkland Islands.

The Cumbrae islands are unmatched for study of minor intrusions associated with the Early Carboniferous Clyde Lava Plateau. The transitional to subalkaline rock suite is present in a linear swarm of c. 250 ENE to NE dykes – 82 ‘basaltic’ (basalt to hawaiite) and 18 ‘trachytic’ (benmoreite to felsite), with a crustal dilation of 13·3. This swarm provides a unique window on the shallow crustal feeder system of the lava plateau. A ‘trachytic’ secondary swarm, focused on the plateau volcano of Misty Law in the Renfrewshire Hills, is analogous to a similar swarm in the Campsie Fells linked to the Meikle Bin volcano, and a ‘basaltic’ secondary swarm, unusually dense, with crustal dilation of 24·7, may record projection of the Dumbarton–Fintry Volcano–Tectonic lineament from the Campsie and Kilpatrick hills into the Firth of Clyde. Accompanied by bosses, plugs, vents and sheeted structures, the swarms are inferred to overlie fracture systems in the Caledonian basement of the Midland Valley. Internal relationships among extrusive and intrusive rocks of the Early Carboniferous suite and external relationships to dyke suites recording regional tectono-magmatic events of Late Carboniferous and Palaeogene age allow formulation of a new relative chronology for magmatic activity in the western off-shore Midland Valley.

Three main types of eye have been defined in trilobites; holochroal, schizochroal and the rare abathochroal. At least in holochroal and schizochroal eyes, the lenses consist of oriented calcitic microcrystallites, the so-called trabecula, which run uninterruptedly throughout the lens from top to bottom. It is argued here that these are primary structures and not diagenetic. Holochroal eyes are commonly accepted to correspond to apposition eyes, which are the most common type of compound eyes in arthropods living today. Schizochroal eyes, present only in phacopine trilobites, are characterised by a doublet lens structure, with an aplanatic interface, correcting spherical aberration of the thick lenses to form a sharp focus for incident rays travelling parallel with the optical axis. This classic model seems to be functional for many phacopines. In these the trabecula are present, though all juxtaposed, forming a solid block. In the lenses of some phacopid species, however, the microcrystallites are separated from each other by gaps. If, during life, these gaps were filled with organic material, as the lens grew from the larval stages, or post-ecdysially, each trabeculum would be isolated from its neighbours by an organic sheath. A simple model is proposed here for the generation of the organic sheath surrounding each trabeculum. If the individual trabecula were isolated from each other, then the possibility of a new kind of visual system exists in these ‘derived’ phacopines. The differences between the refractive indexes inside and outside the trabeculum would ensure that each trabeculum acted as a light-guide, so that the whole ‘lens’ becomes a light guide bundle. This would result in a pixelled visual system, unique in the animal realm, but an archetype for modern technology of data transfer.

The Devonian actinopterygian Mimia Gardiner & Bartram (1977) of the Upper Devonian (Frasnian) Gogo Formation of Western Australia, one of the most completely known of all Palaeozoic ray-finned fishes, is renamed Mimipiscis nom. nov. due to preoccupation of the former genus by the butterfly Mimia Evans (1953). Recently acquired data, including the description of newly prepared fossil material, has revealed the presence of a second species in this formerly monotypic genus, as well as previously unreported features of the tail, parasphenoid and ontogenetic variability of type species, Mimipiscis toombsi (Gardiner & Bartram 1977). The second form, Mimipiscis bartrami sp. nov., differs from the contemporary M. toombsi in details of the body shape, squamation, snout, suboperculum and parasphenoid. Phylogenetic analyses recover Mimipiscis and Gogosardina as sister genera within a monophyletic Mimiidae, a clade restricted to the Late Devonian of Western Australia.

A pioneer study of the previously unknown δ13C chemostratigraphy in the Ordovician/Silurian boundary interval in eastern Iowa and northeastern Illinois resulted in the discovery of the Hirnantian Isotope Carbon Excursion (HICE). The presence of this major isotope excursion in the Mosalem Formation in Iowa and the Wilhelmi Formation in Illinois, which indicates that the excursion interval in these units is of Hirnantian (latest Ordovician) rather than Early Silurian age, necessitates a revised chronostratigraphic classification of these units. Although the precise level of the Ordovician/Silurian boundary remains somewhat uncertain in the absence of the diagnostic graptolites, it is herein placed in the upper part, but well below the top, of the Mosalem Formation and at the top of the Wilhelmi Formation. During a major regression following the deposition of the Maquoketa Shale, the upper part of the latter clastic unit was in some places deeply eroded, resulting in a topographically dissected landscape with upland areas separated by wide incised valleys. During a subsequent late Hirnantian transgression, these palaeovalleys were gradually filled with marine sediments, but the upland areas were not transgressed until earliest Silurian times. The new chemostratigraphical evidence is in good agreement with the available biostratigraphical data, especially from corals, conodonts, and brachiopods. A preliminary chemostratigraphical study of the presumably coeval Edgewood Group successions in Pike County, northeastern Missouri failed to document any heavy δ13C values characteristic of the HICE and some, or all, of the Hirnantian values obtained there may be diagenetically overprinted.

The unique specimen of the Early Carboniferous lungfish Straitonia waterstoni is described in detail. As the only articulated lungfish currently described from the Viséan, it is of particular interest for lungfish evolution. It retains some plesiomorphic features of the skull, and shows some derived features in common with later Carboniferous forms. A thorough description is provided for future phylogenetic analyses. Straitonia has a number of diagnostic features. These include: a relatively narrow B-bone with a broad and curved anterior margin; an unpaired, parallel-sided C-bone whose margin is convex anteriorly; a B-bone approximately the same width as the single C-bone; the I-bones are relatively small compared with the B- and J-bones; the J-bones are tri-lobed; the XY bone is elongate along a posteromedial–anterolateral axis. Elongate fins dorsally and ventrally suggest a condition similar to those of later Carboniferous forms with confluent second dorsal, caudal and anal fins. It may thus be the earliest lungfish to show this condition. The ventral tail fin includes some fused elements, probably haemal and infrahaemal spines. The identity of one of the skull bones is discussed, and concluded to be a C-bone rather than a D-bone as previously described. The D-bone is absent, as in later Carboniferous forms. The history of the D-bone is considered.

Gracilisuchus stipanicicorum Romer, 1972, from the Middle-Late Triassic of the Ischigualasto–Villa Unión Basin of Argentina, is an extinct pseudosuchian archosaur on the stem to Crocodylomorpha. The pelvic girdle and hind limb anatomy of a referred specimen of Gracilisuchus stipanicicorum is described and compared with that from a broad range of archosauriform taxa, including basal members such as crurotarsans and basal ornithodirans. The description of this specimen reveals new information on the anatomy of the pelvic girdle and hind limb of Gracilisuchus, through a detailed examination of some anatomical regions barely or not previously described, as well as reinterpretations of previous features. The phylogenetic affinities of Gracilisuchus within the Archosauria remain to be tested, but Gracilisuchus shares two putative synapomorphies with some non-crocodyliform crocodylomorphs, providing tentative support for the monophyly of Sphenosuchia (e.g., Sereno & Wild 1992; Wu & Chatterjee 1993) and the close relationship of Gracilisuchus to that clade. These characteristics are: (i) the morphology and poor development of the femoral fourth trochanter, closely resembling the condition of Pseudhesperosuchus and Trialestes; and (ii) a poor anterior development of the femoral head, shared with Pseudhesperosuchus. On the other hand there are characters that reject the inclusion of Gracilisuchus within Crocodylomorpha (Nesbitt 2011), such as the absence of an imperforated acetabulum, and that rather suggests a sister-taxon position to Crocodylomorpha.

The processes involved in vital effects, defined as biological processes overriding environmental signals, are not well understood and this hampers the interpretation of environmental parameters such as seawater temperature. Insufficient knowledge is available about changes in physico-chemical parameters, in particular those related to crystallography, associated with biomineral formation and emplacement. This paper assesses the influence of crystallography on Mg2+ concentration and distribution in calcite biominerals of bivalved marine organisms, mussels and rhynchonelliform brachiopods, and considers the implications for Mg/Ca thermometry. In the mussel Mytilus edulis, changes in Mg2+ are not associated with crystallography; but in the brachiopod Terebratulina retusa, increases in Mg2+ concentrations (∼0·5–0·6 wt. ) are associated with the {0001 planes of calcite biominerals. A comparison between mussels and brachiopods with avian eggshells, which form at constant ambient temperature, also reveals that there is at least a common 0·1 wt. variation in magnesium concentration in these calcite biomineral systems unrelated to temperature or crystallography. Results demonstrate that the integration of contextual crystallographic, biological and chemical information may be important to extract accurate environmental information from biominerals.

We present an overview of all known fossil scombroid fishes (Scombroidei, Perciformes) of the former USSR, many taxa of which are described in a language other than Russian for the first time. Also new is the application of a cladistic framework for these taxa. For each taxon, short taxonomic synopses with the most relevant characteristics (synapomorphies, meristic counts) are presented in a form useful for future cladistic analysis. As an exception, we present an extensive systematic description of the billfish †Hemingwaya sarissa Sytchevskaya & Prokofiev, because we disagree with earlier interpretations. The ‘gempylid’ †Hemithyrsites maicopicus Daniltshenko retains its generic name, which is considered the valid name of what is also known as Promethichthys Gill. A new tribe, †Eocoelopomini, is erected to contain the genera †Eocoelopoma Woodward, †Palaeothunnus Bannikov, and †Micrornatus Monsch. It is questioned whether species previously described as belonging to Thunnus South should be classified in that genus. A new species of tribe Scomberomorini, †Neocybium parvidentatum, is described from the Bartonian of W Kazakhstan. A specimen of †Auxides (questionably Maastrichthian, Iran), also reported here, possibly extends the radiation of †Auxides, and scombroids as a whole, further back in time. The fossil record of the Blochiidae is probably extended downwards to the Thanetian.

Luminescence methods were used to date a palaeoenvironmental coastal exposure on Stronsay, Orkney. The section consists of glacial sediments that are overlain by intercalated peats and windblown sands, implying varying past environmental conditions. Rapid luminescence characterisation was undertaken using screening methods in combination with quantitative dating of selected samples, providing information on depositional processes and chronology. A temporal discontinuity between the glacial sediments and later peats encompasses the period associated with an important Mesolithic site located inland, and implies erosional episodes. The onset of blanket bog formation on Stronsay dates to 3760±330 yrs BP, consistent with observations elsewhere in Orkney and northern Scotland. Periods of enhanced aeolian activity on Stronsay occurred in the late Bronze Age (2700±265 yrs BP) and at the beginning of the Little Ice Age (650±75 yrs BP). Recent periods of sand deposition in the 19th and 20th centuries (AD 1865±20 and 1960±5) correspond to periods of known historic storminess. These results add to an expanding catalogue of data on sand movements throughout the Holocene in Orkney, and set a framework to interpret the evolution of nearby archaeological and natural landscapes from prehistoric to modern times.

Little Cumbrae and south Bute are the closest outliers of Early Carboniferous Clyde Plateau volcanic rocks to those forming the plateau itself, and the only ones with the potential to reveal how the volcanic succession of the plateau becomes attenuated westward beneath the Firth of Clyde. Closest links are to the Renfrewshire Hills Block of the plateau proper, where the Clyde Plateau Volcanic Formation attains its greatest thickness and widest extent.

Basal lavas in both outliers can be correlated to the lower part of the Strathgryfe Member of the Clyde Plateau Volcanic Formation (Viséan, Holkerian), which rests disconformably on the Clyde Sandstone Formation (Tournaisian, Chadian). Relative to the Renfrewshire Hills Block, this implies intervening overlap of three older members of the Clyde Plateau Formation and overstep of a varied sedimentary foundation. Higher lavas and pyroclastic accumulations in south Bute are correlative to the Misty Law Trachytic Member and upper part of the Strathgryfe Member. Thin lavas that cap the Renfrewshire Hills Block on its eastern flank probably never accumulated as far west as the present Firth of Clyde.

Southwestward from the Renfrewshire Hills, the Clyde Plateau lavas lose about two thirds of their 1000-m thickness in 25–30 km – a rate of thinning that implies they may extend no farther than the Sound of Bute or northeastern Arran.

Hangzhou Bay is a typical funnel-shaped high turbid estuary along a mesotidal coast of the East China Sea. In this paper, field studies are undertaken in an attempt to better understand tide-induced fine sediment transport processes in the Bay. Field observations were made mainly of current velocities (speeds and directions) and suspended sediment concentrations at six different relative depths and two stations in September 1992. Results show that (1) high near-bed suspended sediment concentrations varied from 1·81 to 4·00 kg m−3 during the spring tide and from 1·04 to 8·00 kg m−3 during the neap tide; (2) tide-induced near-bed fine sediment resuspension processes are indicated by several periodic suspended sediment concentration peaks; and (3) a hysteresis effect, or suspension-lag, occurs in suspended sediment concentration and resuspension events. Tide-induced fine sediment processes are mainly responsible for very high concentration suspensions of fine sediments in Hangzhou Bay. The occurrence of the suspension-lag phenomenon is likely to be common in other similar muddy tidal environments.