Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dlnhk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T22:05:24.542Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Prevalence of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Among Adult Earthquake Survivors in Peru

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 April 2013

Javier B. Cairo ,
Suparna Dutta ,
Haq Nawaz ,
Shahrukh Hashmi ,
Stanislav Kasl  and
Edgar Bellido
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Objectives: To estimate the prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and to assess the relationships between PTSD and demographic and disaster-related factors.

Methods: Five months after a magnitude 8.0 earthquake struck the city of Pisco, Peru, we conducted a cross-sectional study using demographic questions, the PTSD Checklist, and a translated version of the Harvard Trauma Questionnaire. We used stratified sampling to randomly enroll subjects in Pisco and its annexes. We then used bivariate and multivariate analyses to find correlations between PTSD and demographic and disaster-related factors.

Results: We interviewed 298 adult earthquake survivors and detected 75 cases of PTSD (prevalence 25.2%; 95% confidence interval, 20.2%-30.1%). In the bivariate analysis, PTSD was significantly associated with female sex, loss of church, food and water shortages immediately after the earthquake, joblessness, injuries, loss of a relative or friend, lack of clean drinking water or appropriate sleeping conditions 5 months after the earthquake, and low levels of perceived support from family and friends. In the multivariate analysis, only female sex, food and water shortages, loss of church, injuries, and low levels of perceived support from family and friends were independently associated with PTSD.

Conclusions: PTSD affected about a quarter of Pisco's population. Its impact was moderate to severe when compared with other disasters worldwide and in Latin America.

(Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2010;4:39-46)

Keywords

stress disorders, post-traumaticPeruearthquakesmental healthdisasters
Type
Original Articles
Information
Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness , Volume 4 , Issue 1 , March 2010 , pp. 39 - 46
Copyright
Copyright © Society for Disaster Medicine and Public Health, Inc. 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1.Diaz-Fuertes, E. Informe de emergencia No. 287. Biblioteca Virtual en Prevención y Atención de Desastres Web site. March 27, 2008. http://bvpad.indeci.gob.pe/doc/pdf/esp/doc606/doc606.pdf. Accessed January 12, 2009.Google Scholar
2.Fraser, B. Earthquake highlights mental-health issues in Peru. Lancet. 2007;370 (9590):815–816.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
3.American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic Criteria From DSM-IV-TR. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2000.Google Scholar
4.Norris, FH, Friedman, MJ, Watson, PJ, Byrne, CM, Diaz, E, Kaniasty, K. 60,000 disaster victims speak, part I: an empirical review of the empirical literature, 1981-2001. Psychiatry. 2002;65 (3):207–239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
5.Foa, EB, Stein, DJ, McFarlane, AC. Symptomatology and psychopathology of mental health problems after disaster. J Clin Psychiatry. 2006;67 (suppl 2):15–25.Google ScholarPubMed
6.McFarlane, AC, Papay, P. Multiple diagnoses in posttraumatic stress disorder in the victims of a natural disaster. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1992;180 (8):498–504.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
7.Kar, N, Bastia, BK. Post-traumatic stress disorder, depression and generalised anxiety disorder in adolescents after a natural disaster: a study of comorbidity. Clin Pract Epidemiol Ment Health. 2006;2:17doi: 10.1186/1745-0179-2-17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
8.Onder, E, Tural, U, Aker, T, Kiliç, C, Erdoğan, S. Prevalence of psychiatric disorders three years after the 1999 earthquake in Turkey: Marmara Earthquake Survey (MES). Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2006;41 (11):868–874.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
9.International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. World Disasters Report 2009. Geneva, Switzerland: IFRC; 2009.Google Scholar
10.Norris, FH. Disaster research methods: past progress and future directions. J Trauma Stress. 2006;19 (2):173–184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
11.Armenian, HK, Morikawa, M, Melkonian, AK. Loss as a determinant of PTSD in a cohort of adult survivors of the 1988 earthquake in Armenia: implications for policy. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2000;102 (1):58–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
12.Goenjian, AK, Steinberg, AM, Najarian, LM, Fairbanks, LA, Tashjian, M, Pynoos, RS. Prospective study of posttraumatic stress, anxiety, and depressive reactions after earthquake and political violence. Am J Psychiatry. 2000;157 (6):911–916.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
13.Tural, U, Coşkun, B, Onder, E. Psychological consequences of the 1999 earthquake in Turkey. J Trauma Stress. 2004;17 (6):451–459.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
14.Başoğlu, M, Kiliç, C, Salcioğlu, E, Livanou, M. Prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder and comorbid depression in earthquake survivors in Turkey: an epidemiological study. J Trauma Stress. 2004;17 (2):133–141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
15.Başoğlu, M, Salcioğlu, E, Livanou, M. Traumatic stress responses in earthquake survivors in Turkey. J Trauma Stress. 2002;15 (4):269–276.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
16.Salcioğlu, E, Başoğlu, M, Livanou, M. Long-term psychological outcome for non–treatment-seeking earthquake survivors in Turkey. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2003;191 (3):154–160.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
17.Salcioglu, E, Basoglu, M, Livanou, M. Post-traumatic stress disorder and comorbid depression among survivors of the 1999 earthquake in Turkey. Disasters. 2007;31 (2):115–129.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
18.Karamustafalioglu, OK, Zohar, J, Güveli, M. Natural course of posttraumatic stress disorder: a 20-month prospective study of Turkish earthquake survivors. J Clin Psychiatry. 2006;67 (6):882–889.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
19.Chou, FH, Wu, HC, Chou, P. Epidemiologic psychiatric studies on post-disaster impact among Chi-Chi earthquake survivors in Yu-Chi, Taiwan. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2007;61 (4):370–378.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
20.Lai, TJ, Chang, CM, Connor, KM, Lee, LC, Davidson, JR. Full and partial PTSD among earthquake survivors in rural Taiwan. J Psychiatr Res. 2004;38 (3):313–322.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
21.Yang, YK, Yeh, TL, Chen, CC. Psychiatric morbidity and posttraumatic symptoms among earthquake victims in primary care clinics. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2003;25 (4):253–261.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
22.Kuo, CJ, Tang, HS, Tsay, CJ, Lin, SK, Hu, WH, Chen, CC. Prevalence of psychiatric disorders among bereaved survivors of a disastrous earthquake in Taiwan. Psychiatr Serv. 2003;54 (2):249–251.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
23.Hsu, CC, Chong, MY, Yang, P, Yen, CF. Posttraumatic stress disorder among adolescent earthquake victims in Taiwan. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2002;41 (7):875–881.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
24.Chen, CH, Tan, HK, Liao, LR. Long-term psychological outcome of 1999 Taiwan earthquake survivors: a survey of a high-risk sample with property damage. Compr Psychiatry. 2007;48 (3):269–275.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
25.Cao, H, McFarlane, AC, Klimidis, S. Prevalence of psychiatric disorder following the 1988 Yun Nan (China) earthquake: the first 5-month period. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2003;38 (4):204–212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
26.Wang, L, Zhang, Y, Wang, W. Symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder among adult survivors three months after the Sichuan earthquake in China [published online ahead of print August 28, 2009]. J Trauma Stress. 2009;22 (5):444–450doi: 10.1002/jts.20439.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
27.Kiliç, C, Aydin, I, Taşkintuna, N. Predictors of psychological distress in survivors of the 1999 earthquakes in Turkey: effects of relocation after the disaster. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2006;114 (3):194–202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
28.Wang, X, Gao, L, Shinfuku, N, Zhang, H, Zhao, C, Shen, Y. Longitudinal study of earthquake-related PTSD in a randomly selected community sample in north China. Am J Psychiatry. 2000;157 (8):1260–1266.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
29.Coudrain, A, Francou, B, Kundzewicz, ZW. Glacier shrinkage in the Andes and consequences for water resources. Hydrol Sci J. 2005;50 (6):925–932.Google Scholar
30.Instituto Especializado de Salud Mental. Estudio epidemiológico metropolitano en salud mental 2002. Informe General. Anales de Salud Mental. 2002;18 (1-2):1–197.Google Scholar
31.Instituto Especializado de Salud Mental. Estudio epidemiológico en salud mental en la sierra peruana 2003. Informe General. Anales de Salud Mental. 2003;19 (1-2):1–216.Google Scholar
32.Instituto Especializado de Salud Mental. Estudio epidemiológico en salud mental en la selva peruana 2004. Informe General. Anales de Salud Mental. 2005;21 (1-2):1–213.Google Scholar
33.Fraser, B. Slow recovery in Peru. Lancet. 2004;364 (9440):1115–1116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
34.Norris, FH, Murphy, AD, Baker, CK, Perilla, JL, Rodriguez, FG, Rodriguez, J de J. Epidemiology of trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in Mexico. J Abnorm Psychol. 2003;112 (4):646–656.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
35.Blanchard, EB, Jones-Alexander, J, Buckley, TC, Forneris, CA. Psychometric properties of the PTSD Checklist (PCL). Behav Res Ther. 1996;34 (8):669–673.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
36.Ventureyra, VA, Yao, SN, Cottraux, J, Note, I, De Mey-Guillard, C. The validation of the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist Scale in posttraumatic stress disorder and nonclinical subjects. Psychother Psychosom. 2002;71 (1):47–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
37.Miles, JN, Marshall, GN, Schell, TL. Spanish and English versions of the PTSD Checklist-Civilian version (PCL-C): testing for differential item functioning. J Trauma Stress. 2008;21 (4):369–376.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
38.Orlando, M, Marshall, GN. Differential item functioning in a Spanish translation of the PTSD checklist: detection and evaluation of impact. Psychol Assess. 2002;14 (1):50–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
39.Marshall, GN. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptom Checklist: factor structure and English-Spanish measurement invariance. J Trauma Stress. 2004;17 (3):223–230.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
40.Costa-Requena, G, Gil, F. Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in cancer: psychometric analysis of the Spanish Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist-Civilian version [published online ahead of print July 9, 2009]. Psychooncology. doi:.10.1002/pon.1601.Google Scholar
41.Israelski, DM, Prentiss, DE, Lubega, S. Psychiatric co-morbidity in vulnerable populations receiving primary care for HIV/AIDS. AIDS Care. 2007;19 (2):220–225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
42.Hashmi, S. Mental Health Outcomes Post-Earthquake in a Developing Country [master's thesis]. New Haven, CT: Yale University; 2007.Google Scholar
43.Tapia Conyer, R, Sepúlveda Amor, J, Medina Mora, ME, Caraveo, J, de la Fuente, JR. Prevalencia del síndrome de estrés postraumático en la población sobreviviente a un desastre natural. Salud Publica Mex. 1987;29 (5):406–411.Google Scholar
44.Piña Barba, B, Torres Cosme, JL, Prawda Witemberg, M, Pérez Reséndiz, G. Efectos psychológicos causados por los sismos de 1985 en estudiantes de medicina. Salud Publica Mex. 1991;33 (3):266–277.Google Scholar
45.Norris, FH, Murphy, AD, Baker, CK, Perilla, JL. Postdisaster PTSD over four waves of a panel study of Mexico's 1999 flood. J Trauma Stress. 2004;17 (4):283–292.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
46.Lima, BR, Chavez, H, Samaniego, N. Disaster severity and emotional disturbance: implications for primary mental health care in developing countries. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1989;79 (1):74–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
47.Lima, BR, Santacruz, H, Lozano, J. Disasters and mental health: experience in Colombia and Ecuador and its relevance for primary care in mental health in Latin America. Int J Ment Health. 1990;19 (2):3–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
48.Lima, BR, Chávez, H, Samaniego, N, Pai, S. Psychiatric disorders among emotionally distressed disaster victims attending primary mental health clinics in Ecuador. Bull Pan Am Health Organ. 1992;26 (1):60–66.Google ScholarPubMed
49.Lima, BR, Pai, S, Santacruz, H, Lozano, J, Luna, J. Screening for the psychological consequences of a major disaster in a developing country: Armero, Colombia. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1987;76 (5):561–567.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
50.Scott, RL, Knoth, RL, Beltran-Quiones, M, Gomez, N. Assessment of psychological functioning in adolescent earthquake victims in Colombia using the MMPI-A. J Trauma Stress. 2003;16 (1):49–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
51.Kohn, R, Levav, I, Donaire, I, Machuca, M, Tamashiro, R. Psychological and psychopathological reactions in Honduras following Hurricane Mitch: implications for service planning. Rev Panam Salud Publica. 2005;18 (4-5):287–295.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
52.Caldera, T, Palma, L, Penayo, U, Kullgren, G. Psychological impact of the hurricane Mitch in Nicaragua in a one-year perspective. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2001;36 (3):108–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
53.Goenjian, AK, Molina, L, Steinberg, AM. Posttraumatic stress and depressive reactions among Nicaraguan adolescents after Hurricane Mitch. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158 (5):788–794.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
54.Kessler, RC, Sonnega, A, Bromet, E, Hughes, M, Nelson, CB. Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1995;52 (12):1048–1060.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
55.Ranasinghe, PD, Levy, BR. Prevalence of and sex disparities in posttraumatic stress disorder in an internally displaced Sri Lankan population 6 months after the 2004 tsunami. Disaster Med Public Health Prep. 2007;1 (1):34–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
56.Solomon, SD, Smith, EM, Fischbach, RL. Social involvement as a mediator of disaster-induced stress. J Appl Soc Psychol. 1987;17 (12):1092–1112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
57.Kohn, R, Levav, I, Garcia, ID, Machuca, ME, Tamashiro, R. Prevalence, risk factors and aging vulnerability for psychopathology following a natural disaster in a developing country. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2005;20 (9):835–841.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
58.Kuo, HW, Wu, SJ, Ma, TC, Chiu, MC, Chou, SY. Posttraumatic symptoms were worst among quake victims with injuries following the Chi-Chi quake in Taiwan. J Psychosom Res. 2007;62 (4):495–500.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
59.Hurricane Katrina Community Advisory Group. RC Kessler. Hurricane Katrina's impact on the care of survivors with chronic medical conditions. J Gen Intern Med. 2007;22 (9):1225–1230.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
60.Kaniasty, K, Norris, FH. Longitudinal linkages between perceived social support and posttraumatic stress symptoms: sequential roles of social causation and social selection. J Trauma Stress. 2008;21 (3):274–281.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed