Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gvvz8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-16T12:30:30.607Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Effort-Reward Imbalance and Post-Traumatic Stress After a Workplace Terror Attack

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 January 2016

Camilla Hem ,
Morten Birkeland Nielsen ,
Marianne Bang Hansen  and
Trond Heir
Camilla Hem*
Affiliation:
Norwegian Centre for Violence and Traumatic Stress Studies, Oslo, Norway
Morten Birkeland Nielsen
Affiliation:
National Institute of Occupational Health and Department of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
Marianne Bang Hansen
Affiliation:
Norwegian Centre for Violence and Traumatic Stress Studies, Oslo, Norway
Trond Heir
Affiliation:
Norwegian Centre for Violence and Traumatic Stress Studies, Oslo, Norway Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
*
Correspondence and reprint requests to Camilla Hem, Norwegian Centre for Violence and Traumatic Stress Studies, 181 Nydalen, 0409 Oslo, Norway (e-mail: [email protected]).
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Objective

Following adverse work conditions, health consequences can be explained by an imbalance between the effort made and the reward received. We investigated the association between extra effort, perceived reward, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The Effort-Reward Imbalance Model was used to examine whether extra effort at work in the aftermath of a workplace-related terrorist attack affected the risk of PTSD and the effects of reward for extra effort from a leader or colleagues.

Methods

Cross-sectional data were collected 10 months after a terrorist attack in Norway in 2011. Out of 3520 Ministry employees invited, 1927 agreed to participate. Employees reported any extra effort performed as a result of the bomb explosion and any reward received from a leader or colleagues. PTSD was assessed with the PTSD Checklist.

Results

Employees who reported extra effort displayed increased risk for PTSD (odds ratio [OR]=1.71, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.15-2.55, P=0.008). Perceived reward for extra effort from a leader was associated with lower risk for PTSD (OR=0.39, 95% CI: 0.23-0.64, P<0.001) but not perceived reward from colleagues.

Conclusions

Extra effort may increase the risk of PTSD, but reward from a leader may mitigate this effect. The Effort-Reward Imbalance Model appears to be an appropriate approach that may contribute to understanding of the etiology of work-related PTSD. (Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2016;10:219–224)

Keywords

stress disorderspost-traumaticEffort-Reward Imbalance (ERI) Modeljob-stresssocial supportleadership
Type
Original Research
Information
Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness , Volume 10 , Issue 2 , April 2016 , pp. 219 - 224
Copyright
Copyright © Society for Disaster Medicine and Public Health, Inc. 2016 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1. Skogstad, M, Skorstad, M, Lie, A, et al. Work-related post –traumatic stress disorders. Occup Med (Lond). 2013;63(3):175-182. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/occmed/kqt003.Google Scholar
2. van der Velden, PG, Bosmans, MWG, Bogaerts, S, et al. Social organizational stressors and post-disaster mental health disturbances: a longitudinal study. Psychiatry Res. 2014;219(1):177-182. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2014.05.032.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
3. Stansfeld, S, Candy, B. Psychosocial work environment and mental health- a meta-analytic review. Scand J Work Environ Health. 2006;32(6, special issue):443-462.Google Scholar
4. Niedhammer, I, Tek, ML, Starke, D, et al. Effort-Reward Imbalance Model and self-reported health: cross-sectional and prospective findings from the GAZEL cohort. Soc Sci Med. 2004;58(8):1531-1541. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(03)00346-0.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
5. van Vegchel, N, de Jonge, J, Bosma, H, et al.. Reviewing the effort-reward imbalance model: drawing up the balance of 45 empirical studies. Soc Sci Med. 2005;60(5):1117-1131. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.06.043.Google Scholar
6. Karasek, RA. Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental strain: implications for job redesign. Adm Sci Q. 1979;24(2):285-308. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2392498.Google Scholar
7. Ferrie, JE, Head, J, Dhipley, MJ, et al. Injustice at work and incidence of psychiatric morbidity: the Whitehall II Study. Occup Environ Med. 2006;63(7):443-450. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/oem.2005.022269.Google Scholar
8. Elovainio, M, Kivimäki, M, Vahtera, J. Organizational justice: evidence of a new psychological predictor of health. Am J Public Health. 2002;92(1):105-108. http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.92.1.105.Google Scholar
9. Siegrist, J, Siegrist, K, Dittmann, KH. Biological and psychological factors in cardiovascular disease. Soc Sci Med. 1986;22:104-126.Google Scholar
10. Siegrist, J. Adverse health effects of high-effort/low-reward conditions. J Occup Health Psychol. 1996;1(1):27-41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.1.1.27.Google Scholar
11. Söderberg, M, Rosengren, A, Hillström, J, et al. A cross-sectional study of the relationship between job demand-control, effort-reward imbalance and cardiovascular heart disease risk factors. BMC Public Health. 2012;12(1):1102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-1102.Google Scholar
12. Peter, R, Alfredsson, L, Hammar, N, et al. High effort, low reward, and cardiovascular risk factors in employed Swedish men and woman: baseline results from the WOLF Study. J Epidemiol Community Health. 1998;52(9):540-547. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech.52.9.540.Google Scholar
13. Xu, W, Hang, J, Gao, W, et al. Association between job stress and newly detected combined dyslipidemia among Chinese workers: findings from the SHISO Study. J Occup Health. 2011;53(5):334-342. http://dx.doi.org/10.1539/joh.11-0023-OA.Google Scholar
14. Bathman, LM, Almond, J, Hazi, A, et al. Effort-reward imbalance at work and pre-clinical biological indices of ill-health: the case for salivary immunoglobulin A. Brain Behav Immun. 2013;33:74-79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2013.05.010.Google Scholar
15. Fahlén, G, Knutsson, A, Peter, R, et al. Effort-reward imbalance, sleep disturbances and fatigue. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 2006;79(5):371-378. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00420-005-0063-6.Google Scholar
16. Godin, I, Kittel, F, Coppieters, Y, et al. A prospective study of cumulative job stress in relation to mental health. BMC Public Health. 2005;5(1):67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-5-67.Google Scholar
17. Hansen, MB, Nissen, A, Heir, T. Proximity to terror and post-traumatic stress: a follow-up survey of governmental employees after the 2011 Oslo bombing attack. BMJ Open. 2013;3(7):e002692. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2013-002692.Google Scholar
18. Hem, C, Hussain, A, Wentzel-Larsen, T, et al. The Norwegian version of the PTSD Checklist (PCL): construct validity in a community sample of 2004 tsunami survivors. Nord J Psychiatry. 2012;66(5):355-359. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/08039488.2012.655308.Google Scholar
19. Using the PTSD Checklist for DSM-IV (PCL). National Center for PTSD website. http://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/pages/assessments/assessment-pdf/pcl-handout.pdf. Published January 2014. Accessed December 5, 2015.Google Scholar
20. Weathers, FW, Litz, BT, Herman, DS, et al. The PTSD Checklist (PCL): reliability, validity, and diagnostic utility. Paper presented at: Annual Meeting of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies; October 1993; San Antonio, TX.Google Scholar
21. APA. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.Google Scholar
22. Nandi, A, Galea, S, Tracy, M, et al. Job loss, unemployment, work stress, job satisfaction, and the persistance of posttraumatic stress disorder one year after the September 11 attacks. J Occup Environ Med. 2004;46(10):1057-1064. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.jom.0000141663.22902.0a.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
23. Bannai, A, Tamakoshi, A. The association between long working hours and health: a systematic review of epidemiological evidence. Scand J Work Environ Health. 2014;40(1):5-18. http://dx.doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.3388.Google Scholar
24. Jones, N, Seddon, R, Fear, NT, et al. Leadership, cohesion, morale, and the mental health of UK armed forces in Afghanistan. Psychiatry. 2012;75(1):49-59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1521/psyc.2012.75.1.49.Google Scholar
25. Saijo, Y, Ueno, T, Hashimoto, Y. Post-traumatic stress disorder and job stress among firefighters of urban Japan. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2012;27(1):59-63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1049023X12000222.Google Scholar
26. Stephens, C, Long, N, Miller, I. The impact of trauma and social support on posttraumatic stress disorder: a study of New Zealand police officers. J Crim Justice. 1997;25(4):303-314. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2352(97)00015-9.Google Scholar
27. van der Ploeg, E, Kleber, RJ. Acute and chronic job stressors among ambulance personnel: predictors of health symptoms. Occup Environ Med. 2003;60(suppl 1):40i-46i. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/oem.60.suppl_1.i40.Google Scholar
28. Booth-Kewley, S, Schmied, EA, Highfill-McRoy, RM, et al. Predictors of psychiatric disorders in combat veterans. BMC Psychiatry. 2013;13(1):130. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-13-130.Google Scholar
29. Dickstein, BD, McLean, CP, Mintz, J, et al. Unit cohesion and PTSD symptom severity in Air Force medical personnel. Mil Med. 2010;175(7):482-486. http://dx.doi.org/10.7205/MILMED-D-09-00178.Google Scholar
30. Du Preez, J, Sundin, J, Wessely, S, et al. Unit cohesion and mental health in the UK armed forces. Occup Med (Lond). 2012;62(1):47-53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/occmed/kqr151.Google Scholar
31. Kuoppale, J, Lamminpää, A, Liira, J, et al. Leadership, job well-being, and health effects: a systematic review and a meta-analysis. J Occup Environ Med. 2008;50(8):904-915. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0b013e31817e918d.Google Scholar
32. Janoff-Bulman, R. Shattered Assumptions: Towards a New Psychology of Trauma. New York, NY: The Free Press; 1992.Google Scholar
33. Brewin, CR, Andrews, B, Valentine, JD. Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2000;68(5):748-766. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.68.5.748.Google Scholar
34. Olff, M, Langeland, W, Draijer, N, et al. Gender differences in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychol Bull. 2007;133(2):183-204. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.2.183.Google Scholar
35. Breslau, N. The epidemiology of trauma, PTSD and other posttrauma disorders. Trauma Violence Abuse. 2009;10(3):198-210. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1524838009334448.Google Scholar