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Indian Social Concepts in the Latter Half of the 16Th Century
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 01 July 2024
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The present paper deals with Indian social values and concepts as revealed by a critical study of Hindi poetry of the second half of the 16th century and especially the works of Tulsidasa, Surdasa and Dadu Dayal. Although a detailed comparative study of other forms of literature, particularly in the Persian language, has not been attempted here, this has been taken into consideration in the process of analysing the works of these three poets.
All these writers were religious saints and their theme is essentially devotion (bhakti) and godliness. It is accepted that many of the traditional concepts and some of the idealised situations may not necessarily reflect the position as it obtained in the second half of the 16th century. Nevertheless, a cautious and careful examination of poetry, more particularly of the choice of words, does enable us to determine the prevailing attitudes and social concepts. Some of these are briefly referred to in this paper.
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- Research Article
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- Copyright © 1974 Fédération Internationale des Sociétés de Philosophie / International Federation of Philosophical Societies (FISP)
References
1 Tulsidasa, Shri Ramacharit Manasa. Gita Press, Gorakhpur, 8th ex. V.S. 2027, 7/100; Kavitavali 7/850. (The other words of Tulsi are cited from Tulsi Granthavali, Vol. II, Kashi V.S. 2004, 3rd ed.).
2 Manasa. 7/20: "Those who, faithful to their duty, follow the path of the Veda, respect the specific obligations of their caste and the established milestones of life."
3 Manasa. 7/98-101, 7/21, 28; 1/154, 1/155/1.
4 Manasa. 7/98-101.
5 Abul Fazl, Ain-i-Akbari, tr. Blochmann, p. 4. See also Ziauddin Barni, Fatawa-i-Jahandari, tr. M. Habib as 'Political Theory of the Delhi Sultanat,' Allahabad.
6 Shri Daduvani, ed. Swami Narayandas, 2nd ed., V.S. 2026, No. 10/85, 86.
7 Dadu, 15/84; Manasa. 7/12/4; Sur Sagar, ed N.D. Vaypai, Varanasi, 4th ed. V.S. 2021.
8 Manasa. 7/23/3, 4.
9 Tulsi, Dohavali 348; Dadu, 27/15; 33/12, 13.
10 Manasa. 2/304/3, 235; Sur. 2/17, 1/297. For details regarding Tulsi's ideas about the role of the state, see Savitri Chandra, Tulsi's Concept of Rul ership (Paper presented to XXXIII Indian History Congress, 1972).
Dadu says that these saints are the captains who navigate the ship of society, guide it to the correct path and bring it ashore. (15/51). See also 15/96, 118-121.
11 Manasa. 7/100/3, Sur, 1/120. For further details, see Savitri Chandra, Social Life in the Age of Akbar as Depicted in the Works of Tulsidasa. (Paper presented on the occasion of the 400th Anniversary of the Foundation of Fatehpur Sikri, December 1972).
12 Manasa. 4/13/3; Doha. 334.
13 Manasa. 5/58; 6/38/5.
14 Dadu, 13/24, pada 16/280; Doha. 513. "In a realm which is badly admin istered the subjects have to undergo a great deal of hardships. They grad ually lose their wealth, and happiness and their particular vocations in life. Their life becomes as pitiable as a kite which is knocked about in a storm."
15 Manasa. 2/254/1, 1/50; Doha. 123; Sur, 1/40; Dadu, (pada) 9/232.
16 Manasa. 1/28/3, 5; 7/28/4/7/20/4, 2/1; Kavitavali 6/23; Tulsi, Hanuman Bahuka, 11, 14, 16, et al.; Dadu, 25/72, 12/145, 22/1 (for Chakravarti); Sur, 1/53, 145 (Chakravarti or Sultan among kings).
17 Tulsi, Vinaya Patrika 78, 134, 135/2; Dadu, 25/90: 21/17, 18; pada 2/6: "O God, you are my master and I am your slave, Your slave by choice, your disciple, my poor obedient self. Lord God compassionate, you are the crown of my head I am your servant, most High Priest, the son of the house."
18 Vinaya. 146; Sur. 1/113, 1/1081; Dadu, 34/13: "Dadu is a captive, you the agent who frees the captive, Now the compassionate Lord no longer holds me prisoner."
19 Dadu, (pada) 9/232; Manasa. 1/55/2; Sur, 1/5.
20 Dadu, 13/42-45. Dadu warns Hindus against going to Dwarka, Kashi & Mathura and the Muslims against going to Mecca & Medina. All the Holy places, he says, are within oneself (pada 9/309).
21 Dadu, 13/130.
22 Dadu, 3/46-50.
23 Dadu, 14/33, 34.
24 Dadu, 16/27.
25 Kavita. 7/106: "Lowly or intelligent, Rajput or weaver, they are all equal in the eyes of God."
26 Kavita. 7/107; Vinaya. 255/2; Sur, 1/11, 12, 15, 19, 21: "Rama loves the devout who utter his name
Nothing else matters to him, neither caste, nor condition,
Nor family, nor name, nor the fact of being king or pauper."
27 Tulsi, Vairagya Sandipani, 38, 41:
"Tulsi says: a devout person, even if an untouchable, is worth more than another because night and day he recites the name of Rama." Sur, 1/34, 35, 233:
"I prefer an untouchable who adores the feet of God to one twice-born (Brahman) who is ignorant of the name of Gopala."
28 Dadu, 16/36, 37:
"Dadu says: I am neither Hindu nor Muslim,
I am not attached to any philosophical school but only to God (Rahman)."
29 Dadu, 14/33:
"Dadu says: without Rama the yogi, lingayat, sevda, Buddhists, ascetics, Muslim priests, The adherents of the six philosophical schools, All represent only the mask of deceit."
30 Dadu, 15/50, 16/10:
" In cutting Brahma up into bits the sects have divided Him."
"Dadu says: abandon limited thought in favor of the unlimited and become non-sectarian (nipakh)."
31 Dadu, 13/48; 16/53, 54, 55; 16/44.
32 For example, Man Singh is reported to have told Akbar, "I am a Hindu. And if I am to become a Muslim, your Majesty ought to say so—but besides Hinduism and Islam, I know of no other religion. (Badauni, Mumtakhab-ul-Lubab, ii/363.)
33 Dadu, 16/45, 47.
34 Dadu, 16/56, 16/49:
"Dadu says: since I am non-sectarian, the people are all in anger against me."
35 Dadu, 16/48, 49, 51.
36 Kavita. 7/106.
37 Sur, 2/38, 1/187, 10/1000.
38 Abul Fazl ‘Ain-i-Akbari' (tr. Blockmann) p. 4-7.
39 Dadu 14/27, 28; Doha. 550, 548; Kavita. 7/177.
40 Dadu, 14/32-34.
41 Dadu, 14/4, 16-19; Kavita. 7/119, 121.
42 Dadu, 14/22-24.
43 Dadu, 14/25, 26.
44 Manasa. 7/100/1.
45 Dadu, 15/78-81.
46 Manasa. 1/17/1; Dadu. 19/37, 38, 39. The sense of detachment towards worldly goods is termed ‘Avanchit.'
47 Dadu, 12/5, 13, 25, 30, 156, 157; Manasa. 3/43; 1/202/2; 4/16/2.
48 Dadu, 12/120, 155, 158, 161, 163, 165; Manasa. 7/99/1, 3/17/3, 5/59/3.
49 Manasa. 4/15/4, 3/37/5; 4/15/4; Dadu, 12/96-98.
50 Manasa. 1/182, 5/38/3; 6/30/3.
51 Manasa. 3/5/5, 5/12/2; Dadu, 24/57.
52 Tulsi mistrusts women. He does not consider even a sister, mother, beloved or wife as being loyal to a man. Dadu on the other hand considers that a mother or sister would be trustworthy, but not other women. Surdasa is the only saint who does not seem to despise women. In fact he goes as far as to describe approvingly the natural attraction of men towards women. Lord Krishna is not only engaged in love-making with his beloved Radha but flirts with in numerable village belles. Sur, 10/683-691; 10/1399-1460; Dadu, 12/119, 121.
53 Kavita. 7/30, 39; Doha. 328; Dadu, 5/1/12/42, 25/58; Sur, 1/325, 957.
54 Dadu, 4/219-224. (in Persian); pada. 1/26 (Punjabi); 1/20, 2/123 (Guja rati).
55 For instance Holi, Diwali, Basant, etc. Sur, 10/2851, 2852, 2893, 2894.
56 Sur, 1/64; 1/143.
57 Doha. 478.
58 Doha. 25, 101, 198, 205, 342, 402; Vairagya. 39; Kavita. 7/73, 99, et. al. See Savitri Chandra, "Social Life," loc. cit.
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