Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dzt6s Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-28T00:07:31.618Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Transactional associations of maternal depressive symptoms with child externalizing behaviors are small after age 3

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 March 2019

Begum Dora Open the ORCID record for Begum Dora [Opens in a new window]  and
Nazli Baydar
Begum Dora*
Affiliation:
Psychology Department, Koc University, Istanbul, Turkey
Nazli Baydar
Affiliation:
Psychology Department, Koc University, Istanbul, Turkey
*
Address for correspondence: Begum Dora, Koc University, Psychology Department, Rumelifeneri Yolu, 34450, Sariyer Istanbul, Turkey; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

A large and growing body of research suggests that maternal depressive symptoms and child externalizing behaviors are strongly associated. Theoretical arguments supported by these findings led to the question of whether maternal depressive symptoms are transactionally associated with child externalizing behaviors. Using 5-year nationally representative longitudinal data from Turkey (N = 1,052), we estimated a transactional bivariate autoregressive latent trajectory model addressing this question. This model disaggregated the association of the two processes into two components: (a) the association of the interindividual differences in the trajectories; and (b) the intradyad association of the changes in maternal depressive symptoms with the changes in child externalizing behaviors. Although maternal depressive symptoms were robustly associated with child externalizing behaviors at age 3, the transactional associations of the two processes were small prior to age 5 and absent at ages 5 to 7. Furthermore, maternal harsh parenting did not have a mediating role in the limited transactional association of maternal depressive symptoms with child externalizing behaviors.

Keywords

child externalizing behaviorslongitudinal modelsmaternal depressive symptomstransactional models
Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 32 , Issue 1 , February 2020 , pp. 293 - 308
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Akcinar, B., & Baydar, N. (2014). Parental control is not unconditionally detrimental for externalizing behaviors in early childhood. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 38, 118–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text revised). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Artazcoz, L., Benach, J., Borrell, C., & Cortes, I. (2004). Unemployment and mental health: Understanding the interactions among gender, family roles, and social class. American Journal of Public Health, 94, 82–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Atkinson, L. P., Paglia, A., Coolbear, J., Niccols, A., Parker, K. C. H., & Guger, S. (2000). Attachment security: A meta-analysis of maternal mental health correlates. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 1019–1040.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Azak, S., & Raeder, S. (2013). Trajectories of parenting behavior and maternal depression. Infant Behavior and Development, 36, 391–402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bandura, A. (1989). Regulation of cognitive processes through perceived self-efficacy. Developmental Psychology, 25, 729–235.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Batum, P., & Yağmurlu, B. (2007). What counts in externalizing behaviors? The contributions of emotion and behavior regulation. Current Psychology, 25, 272–294.Google Scholar
Baydar, N., & Akcinar, B. (2015). Ramifications of socioeconomic differences for three-year-old children and their families in Turkey. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 33, 33–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baydar, N., & Akcinar, B. (2017). Reciprocal relations between the trajectories of mothers' harsh discipline, responsiveness and aggression in early childhood. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. Advance online publication.Google Scholar
Baydar, N., & Bekar, O. (2007). Early childhood HOME-TR observation and interview scales. Unpublished manuscript. Retrieved from http://portal.ku.edu.tr/~ECDET/index.htm.Google Scholar
Baydar, N., Küntay, A. C., Yagmurlu, B., Aydemir, N., Cankaya, D., Göksen, F., & Cemalcilar, Z. (2014). “It takes a village” to support the vocabulary development of children with multiple risk factors. Developmental Psychology, 50, 1014.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baydar, N., & Yumbul, (2004). Marital satisfaction scale (Unpublished manuscript).Google Scholar
Beauchaine, T. P., Webster-Stratton, C., & Reid, M. J. (2005). Mediators, moderators, and predictors of 1-year outcomes among children treated for early-onset conduct problems: A latent growth curve analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 371.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belsky, J., Woodworth, S., & Crnic, K. (1996). Trouble in the second year: Three questions about family interaction. Child Development, 67, 556–578.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bergeron, L., Valla, J. P., Breton, J. J., Gaudet, N., Berthiaume, C., Lambert, J., … Smolia, N. (2000). Correlates of mental disorders in the Quebec general population of 6 to 14-year olds. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 47–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berry, D., & Willoughby, M. T. (2017). On the practical interpretability of cross-lagged panel models: Rethinking a developmental workhorse. Child Development, 88, 1188–1206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bollen, K. A., & Curran, P. J. (2004). Autoregressive latent trajectory (ALT) models a synthesis of two traditions. Sociological Methods and Research, 32, 336–383.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment: Vol. 1. Attachment and loss. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Boyle, M. H., & Pickles, A. R. (1997). Influence of maternal depressive symptoms on ratings of childhood behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 25, 399–412.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bradley, R. H., Corwyn, R. F., Burchinal, P., McAdoo, H. P., & Garcia- Coll, C. (2001). The home environments of children in the United States: Part I. Variations by age, ethnicity, and poverty status. Child Development, 72, 1844–1867.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burke, L. (2003). The impact of maternal depression on familial relationships. International Review of Psychiatry, 15, 243–255.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, S. B. (1995). Behavior problems in preschool children: A review of recent research. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36, 113–149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, S. B., Brownell, C. A., Hungerford, A., Spieker, S. J., Mohan, R., & Blessing, J. S. (2004). The course of maternal depressive symptoms and maternal sensitivity as predictors of attachment security at 36 months. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 231–252.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, S. B., Matestic, P., von Stauffenberg, C., Mohan, R., & Kirchner, T. (2007). Trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms, maternal sensitivity, and children's functioning at school entry. Developmental Psychology, 43, 1202–1215.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, S. B., Morgan-Lopez, A. A., Cox, M. J., & McLoyd, V. C. (2009). A latent class analysis of maternal depressive symptoms over 12 years and offspring adjustment in adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 479.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, S. B., Shaw, D. S., & Gilliom, M. (2000). Early externalizing behavior problems: Toddlers and preschoolers at risk for maladjustment. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 467–488.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carter, A. S., Garrity-Rokous, F. E., Chazen-Cohen, R., Little, C., & Briggs-Gowan, M. J. (2001). Maternal depression and comorbidity: Predicting early parenting, attachment security, and toddler social-emotional problems and competencies. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 18–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cents, R. A. M., Diamantopoulou, S., Hudziak, J. J., Jaddoe, V. W. V., Hofman, A., Verhulst, F. C., … Tiemeier, H. (2013). Trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms predict child problem behaviour: The Generation R study. Psychological Medicine, 43, 13–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Choe, D., Shaw, D., Brennan, L., Dishion, T., & Wilson, M. (2014). Inhibitory control as a mediator of bidirectional effects between early oppositional behavior and maternal depression. Development and Psychopathology, 26(4, Pt. 1), 1129–1147.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Toth, S. L. (1998). Maternal depressive disorder and contextual risk: Contributions to the development of attachment insecurity and behavior problems in toddlerhood. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 283–300.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clarke, H., Flint, J., Attwood, A. S., & Munafo, M. R. (2010). Association of the 5-HTTLPR genotype and unipolar depression: A meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine, 40, 1767–1778.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colvin, A. (1999). Restandardization of the Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory: Professional Manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.Google Scholar
Cummings, E. M., Goeke-Morey, M. C., & Papp, L. M. (2004). Everyday marital conflict and child aggression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32, 191–202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cummings, E. M., Keller, P. S., & Davies, P. T. (2005). Towards a family process model of maternal and paternal depressive symptoms: Exploring multiple relations with child and family functioning. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 479–489.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Curran, P. J., Obeidat, K., & Losardo, D. (2010). Twelve frequently asked questions about growth curve modeling. Journal of Cognitive Development, 11, 121–136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davies, P. T., & Cicchetti, D. (2014). How and why does the 5-HTTLPR gene moderate associations between maternal unresponsiveness and children's disruptive problems? Child Development, 85, 484–500.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Derogatis, L. R. (1993). BSI Brief Symptom Inventory: Administration, scoring, and procedure manual (4th ed.). Minneapolis, MN: National Computer Systems.Google Scholar
Derogatis, L. R., & Melisaratos, N. (1983). The brief symptom inventory: An introductory report. Psychological Medicine, 13, 595–605.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diallo, T. M., & Morin, A. J. (2015). Power of latent growth curve models to detect piecewise linear trajectories. Structural Equation Modeling, 22, 449–460.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eamon, M. K., & Zuehl, R. M. (2001). Maternal depression and physical punishment as mediators of the effect of poverty on socioemotional problems of children in single-mother families. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 71, 218–226.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elgar, F. J., McGrath, P. J., Waschbusch, D. A., Stewart, S. H., & Curtis, L. J. (2004). Mutual influences on maternal depression and child adjustment problems. Clinical Psychology Review, 24, 441–459.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eyberg, S. M., & Robinson, E. A. (1983). Conduct problem behavior: Standardization of a behavioral rating. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 12, 347–354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farmer, A. Y., & Lee, S. K. (2011). The effects of parenting stress, perceived mastery, and maternal depression on parent–child interaction. Journal of Social Service Research, 37, 516–525.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farmer, A., McGuffin, P., & Williams, J. (2002). Measuring psychopathology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Field, T. (1992). Infants of depressed mothers. Development and Psychopathology, 4, 49–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ford, T., Goodman, R., & Meltzer, H. (2004). The relative importance of child, family, school and neighborhood correlates of childhood psychiatric disorder. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 39, 487–496.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Forman, D. R., O'Hara, M. W., Stuart, S., Gorman, L. L., Larsen, K. E., & Coy, K. C. (2007). Effective treatment for postpartum depression is not sufficient to improve the developing mother–child relationship. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 585–602.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foster, C. E., Webster, M. C., Weissman, M. M., Pilowsky, D. J., Wickramaratne, P. J., Talati, A., … King, C. A. (2008). Remission of maternal depression: Relations to family functioning and youth internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 37, 714–724.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garber, J., & Cole, D. A. (2010). Intergenerational transmission of depression: A launch and grow model of change across adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 819–830.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gasperi, M., Herbert, M., Schur, E., Buchwald, D., & Afari, N. (2017). Genetic and environmental influences on sleep, pain, and depression symptoms in a community sample of twins. Psychosomatic Medicine, 79, 646–654.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giallo, R., Cooklin, A., & Nicholson, J. M. (2014). Risk factors associated with trajectories of mothers’ depressive symptoms across the early parenting period: An Australian population-based longitudinal study. Archives of Women's Mental Health, 17, 115–125.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilliom, M., & Shaw, D. S. (2004). Codevelopment of externalizing and internalizing problems in early childhood. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 313–333.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodman, S. H., Rouse, M. H., Connell, A. M., Broth, M. R., Hall, C. M., & Heyward, D. (2011). Maternal depression and child psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14, 1–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Granic, I., & Patterson, G. R. (2006). Toward a comprehensive model of antisocial development: A dynamic systems approach. Psychological Review, 113, 101–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gross, H. E., Shaw, D. S., Burwell, R. A., & Nagin, D. S. (2009). Transactional processes in child disruptive behavior and maternal depression: A longitudinal study from early childhood to adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 139–156.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunlicks, M., & Weissman, M. (2008). Change in child psychopathology with improvement in parental depression: A systematic review. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 379–389.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guyon-Harris, K., Huth-Bocks, A., Lauterbach, D., & Janisse, H. (2016). Trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms across the birth of a child: Associations with toddler emotional development. Archives of Women's Mental Health, 19, 153–165.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hails, K. A., Reuben, J. D., Shaw, D. S., Dishion, T. J., & Wilson, M. N. (2017). Transactional associations among maternal depression, parent–child coercion, and child conduct problems during early childhood. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 26, 1–15.Google Scholar
Haj-Yahia, M. M. (2005). Can people's patriarchal ideology predict their beliefs about wife abuse? The case of Jordanian men. Journal of Community Psychology, 33, 545–567.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harnish, J. D., Dodge, K. A., Valente, E., & Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group (1995). Mother-child interaction quality as a partial mediator of the roles of maternal depressive symptomatology and socioeconomic status in the development of child behavior problems.. Child Development, 66, 739–753.Google ScholarPubMed
Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and organizations. Software of the mind (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Hook, J. N., Worthington, E. L. Jr., & Utsey, S. O. (2009). Collectivism, forgiveness, and social harmony. Counseling Psychologist, 37, 821–847.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jaffee, S. R., & Poulton, R. (2006). Reciprocal effects of mothers’ depression and children's problem behaviors from middle childhood to early adolescence. In Huston, A. C. & Ripke, M. N. (Eds.), Developmental contexts in middle childhood: Bridges to adolescence and adulthood (pp. 107–129). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jongwoo, K., Sunyong, C., Junghye, K., Dongkun, P., Leeheon, K., & Minsoo, L. (2004). Comparison between major depressive disorder & hwabyung (Culture bound syndrome) using the SCL-90-R. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 56, 555–710.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Joormann, J., Siemer, M., & Gotlib, I. H. (2007). Mood regulation in depression: Differential effects of distraction and recall of happy memories on sad mood. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 484.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kagitcibasi, C. (1996). Family and human development across cultures: A view from the other side. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Kagitcibasi, C., & Ataca, B. (2005). Value of children and family change: A three-decade portrait from Turkey. Applied Psychology, 54, 317–337.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalmijn, M., & Monden, C. W. S. (2006). Are the negative effects of divorce on well-being dependent on marital quality? Journal of Marriage and the Family, 68, 1197–1213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim-Cohen, J., Moffitt, T. E., Taylor, A., Pawlby, S. J., & Caspi, A. (2005). Maternal depression and children's antisocial behavior: Nature and nurture effects. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 173–181.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirmayer, L. J. (2001). Cultural variations in the clinical presentation of depression and anxiety: Implications for diagnosis and treatment. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 62, 22–30.Google ScholarPubMed
Kopp, C. (1989). Regulation of distress and negative emotions: A developmental view. Developmental Psychology, 25, 343–354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kouros, C. D., Cummings, E. M., & Davies, P. T. (2010). Early trajectories of interparental conflict and externalizing problems as predictors of social competence in preadolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 527–537.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kouros, C. D., & Garber, J. (2010). Dynamic associations between maternal depressive symptoms and adolescents’ depressive and externalizing symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38, 1069–1081.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Larsson, H., Viding, E., Rijsdijk, F., & Plomin, R. (2008). Relationships between parental negativity and childhood antisocial behavior over time: A bidirectional effects model in a longitudinal genetically informative design. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 633−645.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lengua, L. J. (2006). Growth in temperament and parenting as predictors of adjustment during children's transition to adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 42, 819–832.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maccoby, E. E. (1980). Social development: Psychological growth and the parent-child relationship. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.Google Scholar
Maccoby, E. E. (2000). Parenting and its effects on children: On reading and misreading behavior genetics. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 1–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martin, S. E., Clements, M. L., & Crnic, K. A. (2011). Internalizing and externalizing symptoms in two-year-olds: Links to mother-toddler emotion processes. Journal of Early Childhood and Infant Psychology, 7, 105–128.Google Scholar
Martins, C., & Gaffan, E. A. (2000). Effects of early maternal depression on patterns of infant–mother attachment: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 41, 737–746.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matijasevich, A., Murray, J., Cooper, P. J., Anselmi, L., Barros, A. J., Barros, F. C., & Santos, I. S. (2015). Trajectories of maternal depression and offspring psychopathology at 6 years: 2004 Pelotas cohort study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 174, 424–431.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLennan, J., Kotelchuck, M., & Ch, H. (2001). Prevalence, persistence, and correlates of depressive symptoms in a national sample of mothers of toddlers. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 1316–1323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mesman, J., Bongers, I. L., & Koot, H. M. (2001). Preschool developmental pathways to preadolescent internalizing and externalizing problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 679–689.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mother Child Education Foundation. (2017). Involved fathering and its predictors in Turkey: Main Report. Retrieved from http://www.acev.org/kaynaklarimiz/arastirmalarimiz-ve-yayinlarimizGoogle Scholar
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2017). Mplus user's guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles: Author.Google Scholar
Nelson, D. R., Hammen, C., Brennan, P. A., & Ullman, J. B. (2003). The impact of maternal depression on adolescent adjustment: The role of expressed emotion. Journal of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, 71, 935–944.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nylen, K. J., Moran, T. E., Franklin, C. L., & O'hara, M. W. (2006). Maternal depression: A review of relevant treatment approaches for mothers and infants. Infant Mental Health Journal, 27, 327–343.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
OECD. (2010). OECD Stat Extracts. Retrieved from http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=AEO_TAB13_DEMOGRAPHIC_INDICATORS#Google Scholar
Pascoe, J. M., Stolfi, A., & Ormond, M. B. (2006). Correlates of mothers’ persistent depressive symptoms: A national study. Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 20, 261–269.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paterson, G., & Sanson, A. (1999). The association of behavioral adjustment to temperament, parenting and family characteristics among 5-year-old children. Social Development, 8, 293–309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Piche, G., Bergeron, L., Cyr, M., & Berthiaume, C. (2011). Interaction effects between maternal lifetime depressive/anxiety disorders and correlates of children's externalizing symptoms. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 20, 596–604.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prinzie, P., Onghena, P., Hellinckx, W., Grietens, H., Ghesquiere, P., & Colpin, H. (2004). Parent and child personality characteristics as predictors of negative discipline and externalizing problem behaviour in children. European Journal of Personality, 18, 73–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Radke-Yarrow, M., & Klimes-Dougan, B. (2002). Parental depression and offspring disorders: A developmental perspective. In Goodman, S. H. & Gotlib, I. H. (Eds.), Children of depressed parents: Mechanisms of risk and implications for treatment. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Rehman, U. S., Gollan, J., & Mortimer, A. R. (2008). The marital context of depression: Research, limitations, and new directions. Clinical Psychology Review, 28, 179–198.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rytilä-Manninen, M., Fröjd, S., Haravuori, H., Lindberg, N., Marttunen, M., Kettunen, K., & Therman, S. (2016). Psychometric properties of the Symptom Checklist-90 in adolescent psychiatric inpatients and age- and gender-matched community youth. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 10, 23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Şahin, N. H., & Durak, A. (1994). Kısa semptom envanteri: Türk gençleri için uyarlanması. Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, 9, 44–56.Google Scholar
Shaw, D. S., Connell, A., Dishion, T. J., Wilson, M. N., & Gardner, F. (2009). Improvements in maternal depression as a mediator of intervention effects on early childhood problem behavior. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 417–439.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shaw, D. S., Sitnick, S., Reuben, J., Dishion, T., & Wilson, M. (2016). Transactional effects among maternal depression, neighborhood deprivation, and child conduct problems from early childhood through adolescence: A tale of two low-income samples. Development and Psychopathology, 28, 819–836.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shaw, D. S., Winslow, E. B., Owens, E. B., Vondra, J. I., Cohn, J. F., & Bell, R. Q. (1998). The development of early externalizing problems among children from low-income families: A transformational perspective. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26, 95–107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simon, G., VonKorff, M., Piccinelli, M., Fullerton, C., & Ormel, J. (1999). An international study of the relation between somatic symptoms and depression. New England Journal of Medicine, 341, 1329–1335.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skipstein, A., Janson, H., Kjeldsen, A., Nilsen, W., & Mathiesen, K. S. (2012). Trajectories of maternal symptoms of depression and anxiety over 13 years: The influence of stress, social support, and maternal temperament. BMC Public Health, 12, 1120.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thomas, R., & Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J. (2007). Behavioral outcomes of parent-child interaction therapy and Triple P—Positive Parenting Program: A review and meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 475–495.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tremblay, R. E. (2000). The development of aggressive behaviour during childhood: What have we learned in the past century? International Journal of Behavioral Development, 24, 129–141.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turkey GDP. (2017). Retrieved from https://tradingeconomics.com/turkey/gdpGoogle Scholar
Turkey Inflation Rate. (2017). Retrieved from https://tradingeconomics.com/turkey/inflation-cpiGoogle Scholar
Turkish Statistical Institute. (2006). Turkey's statistical yearbook. News Bulletin 8, Turkey.Google Scholar
Turney, K. (2012). Pathways of disadvantage: Explaining the relationship between maternal depression and children's problem behaviors. Social Science Research, 41, 1546–1564.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vakrat, A., Apter-Levy, Y., & Feldman, R. (2018). Sensitive fathering buffers the effects of chronic maternal depression on child psychopathology. Child Psychiatry & Human Development. Advance online publication.Google Scholar
Van Der Waerden, J., Galéra, C., Larroque, B., Saurel-Cubizolles, M. J., Sutter-Dallay, A. L., Melchior, M., & EDEN Mother–Child Cohort Study Group. (2015). Maternal depression trajectories and children's behavior at age 5 years. Journal of Pediatrics, 166, 1440–1448.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wang, L., Wu, T., Anderson, J. L., & Florence, J. E. (2011). Prevalence and risk factors of maternal depression during the first three years of child rearing. Journal of Women's Health, 20, 711–718.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yağmurlu, B., & Sanson, A. (2009). The role of child temperament, parenting and culture in the development of prosocial behaviors. Australian Journal of Psychology, 61, 77–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zaroff, C. M., Davis, J. M., Chio, P. H., & Madhavan, D. (2012). Somatic presentations of distress in China. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 46, 1053–1057.CrossRefGoogle Scholar