Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rcrh6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T21:17:28.409Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Symptoms of major depressive disorder subsequent to child maltreatment: Examining change across multiple levels of analysis to identify transdiagnostic risk pathways

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 November 2015

Chad E. Shenk ,
Amanda M. Griffin  and
Kieran J. O'Donnell
Chad E. Shenk*
Affiliation:
Pennsylvania State University Pennsylvania State University Hershey Medical Center
Amanda M. Griffin
Affiliation:
Pennsylvania State University
Kieran J. O'Donnell
Affiliation:
McGill University
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Chad E. Shenk, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, 230 Health and Human Development Building, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a prevalent psychiatric condition in the child maltreatment population. However, not all children who have been maltreated will develop MDD or MDD symptoms, suggesting the presence of unique risk pathways that explain how certain children develop MDD symptoms when others do not. The current study tested several candidate risk pathways to MDD symptoms following child maltreatment: neuroendocrine, autonomic, affective, and emotion regulation. Female adolescents (N = 110; age range = 14–19) were recruited into a substantiated child maltreatment or comparison condition and completed a laboratory stressor, saliva samples, and measures of emotion regulation, negative affect, and MDD symptoms. MDD symptoms were reassessed 18 months later. Mediational modeling revealed that emotion regulation was the only significant indirect effect of the relationship between child maltreatment and subsequent MDD symptoms, demonstrating that children exposed to maltreatment had greater difficulties managing affective states that in turn led to more severe MDD symptoms. These results highlight the importance of emotion dysregulation as a central risk pathway to MDD following child maltreatment. Areas of future research and implications for optimizing prevention and clinical intervention through the direct targeting of transdiagnostic risk pathways are discussed.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 27 , Special Issue 4pt2: Multilevel Developmental Perspectives on Child Maltreatment , November 2015 , pp. 1503 - 1514
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aldao, A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Schweizer, S. (2010). Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 217–237. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.004 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allwood, M. A., Handwerger, K., Kivlighan, K. T., Granger, D. A., & Stroud, L. R. (2011). Direct and moderating links of salivary alpha-amylase and cortisol stress-reactivity to youth behavioral and emotional adjustment. Biological Psychology, 88, 57–64. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2011.06.008 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.Google Scholar
Barlow, D. H., Allen, L. B., & Choate, M. L. (2004). Toward a unified treatment for emotional disorders. Behavior Therapy, 35, 205–230.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Manual for the Beck Depression Inventory—II. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Berkowitz, S. J., Stover, C. S., & Marans, S. R. (2011). The Child and Family Traumatic Stress Intervention: Secondary prevention for youth at risk of developing PTSD. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 676–685. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02321.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bilek, E. L., & Ehrenreich-May, J. (2012). An open trial investigation of a transdiagnostic group treatment for children with anxiety and depressive symptoms. Behavior Therapy, 43, 887–897. doi:10.1016/j.beth.2012.04.007 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bohus, M., Dyer, A. S., Priebe, K., Kruger, A., Kleindienst, N., Schmahl, C., et al. (2013). Dialectical behaviour therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder after childhood sexual abuse in patients with and without borderline personality disorder: A randomised controlled trial. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 82, 221–233. doi:10.1159/000348451 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bradley, B., DeFife, J. A., Guarnaccia, C., Phifer, J., Fani, N., Ressler, K. J., et al. (2011). Emotion dysregulation and negative affect: Association with psychiatric symptoms. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 72, 685–691. doi:10.4088/JCP.10m06409blu CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cacioppo, J. T. (1994). Social neuroscience: Autonomic, neuroendocrine, and immune responses to stress. Psychophysiology, 31, 113–128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carpenter, L. L., Carvalho, J. P., Tyrka, A. R., Wier, L. M., Mello, A. F., Mello, M. F., et al. (2007). Decreased adrenocorticotropic hormone and cortisol responses to stress in healthy adults reporting significant childhood maltreatment. Biological Psychiatry, 62, 1080–1087. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.05.002 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chrousos, G. P., & Gold, P. W. (1992). The concepts of stress and stress system disorders. Overview of physical and behavioral homeostasis. Journal of the American Medical Association, 267, 1244–1252.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Blender, J. A. (2004). A multiple-levels-of-analysis approach to the study of developmental processes in maltreated children. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 101, 17325–17326. doi:10.1073/pnas.0408033101 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Dawson, G. (2002). Multiple levels of analysis. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 417–420. doi:10.1017.S0954579402003012 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2001). Diverse patterns of neuroendocrine activity in maltreated children. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 677–693.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., Gunnar, M. R., & Toth, S. L. (2010). The differential impacts of early physical and sexual abuse and internalizing problems on daytime cortisol rhythm in school-aged children. Child Development, 81, 252–269. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01393.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Oshri, A. (2011). Interactive effects of corticotropin releasing hormone receptor 1, serotonin transporter linked polymorphic region, and child maltreatment on diurnal cortisol regulation and internalizing symptomatology. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 1125–1138. doi:10.1017/s0954579411000599 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coates, A. A., & Messman-Moore, T. L. (2014). A structural model of mechanisms predicting depressive symptoms in women following childhood psychological maltreatment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38, 103–113. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.10.005 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collishaw, S., Pickles, A., Messer, J., Rutter, M., Shearer, C., & Maughan, B. (2007). Resilience to adult psychopathology following childhood maltreatment: Evidence from a community sample. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31, 211–229. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2007.02.004 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crawford, J. R., & Henry, J. D. (2004). The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS): Construct validity, measurement properties and normative data in a large non-clinical sample. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 43, 245–265.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cross-disorder Group of the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium. (2013). Identification of risk loci with shared effects on five major psychiatric disorders: A genome-wide analysis. Lancet, 381, 1371–1379. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(12)62129-1 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cuthbert, B., & Insel, T. (2010). Classification issues in women's mental health: Clinical utility and etiological mechanisms. Archives of Women's Mental Health, 13, 57–59. doi:10.1007/s00737-009-0132-z CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ditzen, B., Ehlert, U., & Nater, U. M. (2014). Associations between salivary alpha-amylase and catecholamines—A multilevel modeling approach. Biological Psychology, 103, 15–18. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2014.08.001 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fang, X., Brown, D. S., Florence, C. S., & Mercy, J. A. (2012). The economic burden of child maltreatment in the United States and implications for prevention. Child Abuse & Neglect, 36, 156–165. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.10.006 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fergusson, D. M., Boden, J. M., & Horwood, L. J. (2008). Exposure to childhood sexual and physical abuse and adjustment in early adulthood. Child Abuse & Neglect, 32, 607–619. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2006.12.018 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Flaherty, E. G., Thompson, R., Dubowitz, H., Harvey, E. M., English, D. J., Proctor, L. J., et al. (2013). Adverse childhood experiences and child health in early adolescence. JAMA Pediatrics, 167, 622–629. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2013.22 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foa, E., & Rothbaum, B. (1998). Treating the trauma of rape: Cognitive–behavioral therapy for PTSD. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Franklin, M. E., & Foa, E. (2002). Cognitive behavioral treatments for obsessive compulsive disorder. In Nathan, P. E. & Gorman, J. M. (Eds.), A guide to treatments that work (pp. 367–386). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Geddes, K., Dziurawiec, S., & Lee, C. W. (2013). Dialectical behaviour therapy for the treatment of emotion dysregulation and trauma symptoms in self-injurious and suicidal adolescent females: A pilot programme within a community-based child and adolescent mental health service. Psychiatry Journal, 2013, 145219. doi:10.1155/2013/145219 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilbert, R., Widom, C. S., Browne, K., Fergusson, D., Webb, E., & Janson, S. (2009). Burden and consequences of child maltreatment in high-income countries. Lancet, 373, 68–81. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(08)61706-7 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gillespie, C. F., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2005). Hypercortisolemia and depression. Psychosomatic Medicine, 67(Suppl. 1), S26–S88. doi:10.1097/01.psy.0000163456.22154.d2 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gordis, E. B., Granger, D. A., Susman, E. J., & Trickett, P. K. (2006). Asymmetry between salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase reactivity to stress: Relation to aggressive behavior in adolescents. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 31, 976–987. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2006.05.010 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gordis, E. B., Granger, D. A., Susman, E. J., & Trickett, P. K. (2008). Salivary alpha amylase-cortisol asymmetry in maltreated youth. Hormones and Behavior, 53, 96–103. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2007.09.002 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gotlib, I. H., Joormann, J., Minor, K. L., & Hallmayer, J. (2008). HPA axis reactivity: A mechanism underlying the associations among 5-HTTLPR, stress, and depression. Biological Psychiatry, 63, 847–851. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.10.008 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Granger, D. A., Kivlighan, K. T., el-Sheikh, M., Gordis, E. B., & Stroud, L. R. (2007). Salivary alpha-amylase in biobehavioral research: Recent developments and applications. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1098, 122–144. doi:10.1196/annals.1384.008 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: Development, factor structure, and initial validation of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. Journal of Psychopathology & Behavioral Assessment, 26, 41–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2, 271–299.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hart, J., Gunnar, M., & Cicchetti, D. (1995). Salivary cortisol in maltreated children: Evidence of relations between neuroendocrine activity and social competence. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 11–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Heim, C., Newport, D. J., Heit, S., Graham, Y. P., Wilcox, M., Bonsall, R., et al. (2000). Pituitary–adrenal and autonomic responses to stress in women after sexual and physical abuse in childhood. Journal of the American Medical Association, 284, 592–597.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Insel, T., Cuthbert, B., Garvey, M., Heinssen, R., Pine, D. S., Quinn, K., et al. (2010). Research domain criteria (RDoC): Toward a new classification framework for research on mental disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 748–751. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.09091379 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Institute of Medicine. (1994). Reducing risks for mental disorders: Frontiers for preventative intervention research. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.Google Scholar
Juster, R. P., Bizik, G., Picard, M., Arsenault-Lapierre, G., Sindi, S., Trepanier, L., et al. (2011). A transdisciplinary perspective of chronic stress in relation to psychopathology throughout life span development. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 725–776. doi:10.1017/s0954579411000289 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Juster, R. P., Sindi, S., Marin, M. F., Perna, A., Hashemi, A., Pruessner, J. C., et al. (2011). A clinical allostatic load index is associated with burnout symptoms and hypocortisolemic profiles in healthy workers. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 36, 797–805. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.11.001 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 593–602. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.593 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kiess, W., Meidert, A., Dressendorfer, R. A., Schriever, K., Kessler, U., Konig, A., et al. (1995). Salivary cortisol levels throughout childhood and adolescence: Relation with age, pubertal stage, and weight. Pediatric Research, 37, 502–506.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, J., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). Longitudinal pathways linking child maltreatment, emotion regulation, peer relations, and psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 706–716. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02202.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim-Cohen, J., Caspi, A., Taylor, A., Williams, B., Newcombe, R., Craig, I. W., et al. (2006). MAOA, maltreatment, and gene-environment interaction predicting children's mental health: New evidence and a meta-analysis. Molecular Psychiatry, 11, 903–913. doi:10.1038/sj.mp.4001851 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klengel, T., Mehta, D., Anacker, C., Rex-Haffner, M., Pruessner, J. C., Pariante, C. M., et al. (2013). Allele-specific FKBP5 DNA demethylation mediates gene-childhood trauma interactions. Nature Neuroscience, 16, 33–41. doi:10.1038/nn.3275 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kring, A. M. (2010). The future of emotion research in the study of psychopathology. Emotion Review, 2, 225–228. doi:10.1177/1754073910361986 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kring, A. M., & Werner, K. H. (Eds.). (2004). Emotion regulation and psychopathology. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Kumar, G., Steer, R. A., Teitelman, K. B., & Villacis, L. (2002). Effectiveness of Beck Depression Inventory—II subscales in screening for major depressive disorders in adolescent psychiatric inpatients. Assessment, 9, 164–170.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Linehan, M. M. (1993). Cognitive–behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., & Williams, J. (2004). Confidence limits for the indirect effect: Distribution of the product and resampling methods. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39, 99–128. doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr3901_4 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacMillan, H. L., Fleming, J. E., Streiner, D. L., Lin, E., Boyle, M. H., Jamieson, E., et al. (2001). Childhood abuse and lifetime psychopathology in a community sample. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1878–1883.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacMillan, H. L., Georgiades, K., Duku, E. K., Shea, A., Steiner, M., Niec, A., et al. (2009). Cortisol response to stress in female youths exposed to childhood maltreatment: Results of the youth mood project. Biological Psychiatry, 66, 62–68. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.12.014 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maxwell, S. E., & Cole, D. A. (2007). Bias in cross-sectional analyses of longitudinal mediation. Psychological Methods, 12, 23–44. doi:10.1037/1082-989x.12.1.23 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McEwen, B. S., & Wingfield, J. C. (2003). The concept of allostasis in biology and biomedicine. Hormones and Behavior, 43, 2–15. doi:10.1016/S0018506X02000247 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mehlum, L., Tormoen, A. J., Ramberg, M., Haga, E., Diep, L. M., Laberg, S., et al. (2014). Dialectical behavior therapy for adolescents with repeated suicidal and self-harming behavior: A randomized trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 53, 1082–1091. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2014.07.003 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mehta, D., Klengel, T., Conneely, K. N., Smith, A. K., Altmann, A., Pace, T. W., et al. (2013). Childhood maltreatment is associated with distinct genomic and epigenetic profiles in posttraumatic stress disorder. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110, 8302–8307. doi:10.1073/pnas.1217750110 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Merikangas, K. R., He, J. P., Burstein, M., Swanson, S. A., Avenevoli, S., Cui, L., et al. (2010). Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in U.S. adolescents: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication—Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 980–989. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2010.05.017 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, G. E., Chen, E., & Zhou, E. S. (2007). If it goes up, must it come down? Chronic stress and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis in humans. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 25–45. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.25 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nater, U. M., & Rohleder, N. (2009). Salivary alpha-amylase as a non-invasive biomarker for the sympathetic nervous system: Current state of research. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 486–496. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.01.014 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
National Advisory Mental Health Council's Workgroup. (2010). From discovery to cure: Accelerating the development of new and personalized interventions for mental illnesses. Washington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services.Google Scholar
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Watkins, E. R. (2011). A heuristic for developing transdiagnostic models of psychopathology: Explaining multifinality and divergent trajectories. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 589–609. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2010.05.007 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Porges, S. W., Cohn, J. F., Bal, E., & Lamb, D. (2007). The Dynamic Affect Recognition Evaluation (DARE) software. Chicago: University of Illinois–Chicago.Google Scholar
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879–891.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pruessner, J. C., Kirschbaum, C., Meinlschmid, G., & Hellhammer, D. H. (2003). Two formulas for computation of the area under the curve represent measures of total hormone concentration versus time-dependent change. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 28, 916–931.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Putnam, K. T., Harris, W. W., & Putnam, F. W. (2013). Synergistic childhood adversities and complex adult psychopathology. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26, 435–442. doi:10.1002/jts.21833 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rottenberg, J., Gross, J. J., & Gotlib, I. H. (2005). Emotion context insensitivity in major depressive disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 627–639. doi:10.1037/0021-843x.114.4.627 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rudolph, K. D., Troop-Gordon, W., & Granger, D. A. (2011). Individual differences in biological stress responses moderate the contribution of early peer victimization to subsequent depressive symptoms. Psychopharmacology, 214, 209–219. doi:10.1007/s00213-010-1879-7 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schumacher, S., Kirschbaum, C., Fydrich, T., & Strohle, A. (2013). Is salivary alpha-amylase an indicator of autonomic nervous system dysregulations in mental disorders? A review of preliminary findings and the interactions with cortisol. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 38, 729–743. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.02.003 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scott, K. M., Smith, D. R., & Ellis, P. M. (2010). Prospectively ascertained child maltreatment and its association with DSM-IV mental disorders in young adults. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67, 712–719. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.71 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sedlak, A. J., Mettenburg, J., Basena, M., Petta, I., McPherson, K., & Greene, A. (2010). Fourth National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect (NIS-4): Report to Congress. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect.Google Scholar
Shenk, C. E., Noll, J. G., Peugh, J. L., Griffin, A. G., & Bensman, H. E. (2015). Contamination in the prospective study of child maltreatment and female adolescent health. Journal of Pediatric Psychology. Advance online publication. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsv017 Google ScholarPubMed
Shields, A., & Cicchetti, D. (2001). Parental maltreatment and emotion dysregulation as risk factors for bullying and victimization in middle childhood. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 349–363.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shipman, K., Zeman, J., Penza, S., & Champion, K. (2000). Emotion management skills in sexually maltreated and nonmaltreated girls: A developmental psychopathology perspective. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 47–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silk, J. S., Steinberg, L., & Morris, A. S. (2003). Adolescents’ emotion regulation in daily life: Links to depressive symptoms and problem behavior. Child Development, 74, 1869–1880.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Southam-Gerow, M. A., & Kendall, P. C. (2002). Emotion regulation and understanding: Implications for child psychopathology and therapy. Clinical Psychology Review, 22, 189–222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stroud, L. R., Foster, E., Papandonatos, G. D., Handwerger, K., Granger, D. A., Kivlighan, K. T., et al. (2009). Stress response and the adolescent transition: Performance versus peer rejection stressors. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 47–68. doi:10.1017/s0954579409000042 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tanaka, Y., Ishitobi, Y., Maruyama, Y., Kawano, A., Ando, T., Okamoto, S., et al. (2012). Salivary alpha-amylase and cortisol responsiveness following electrical stimulation stress in major depressive disorder patients. Progress in Neuropsychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 36, 220–224. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2011.10.005 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thornberry, T. P., Ireland, T. O., & Smith, C. A. (2001). The importance of timing: The varying impact of childhood and adolescent maltreatment on multiple problem outcomes. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 957–979.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trickett, P. K., Noll, J. G., Susman, E. J., Shenk, C. E., & Putnam, F. W. (2010). Attenuation of cortisol across development for victims of sexual abuse. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 165–175. doi:10.1017/s0954579409990332 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
US Department of Health and Human Services. (2012). Child Maltreatment, 2011. Retrieved from http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/cb/research-data-technology/statistics-research/child-maltreatment Google Scholar
van Stegeren, A., Rohleder, N., Everaerd, W., & Wolf, O. T. (2006). Salivary alpha amylase as marker for adrenergic activity during stress: Effect of beta blockade. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 31, 137–141. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2005.05.012 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 54, 1063–1070.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waugh, C. E., Muhtadie, L., Thompson, R. J., Joormann, J., & Gotlib, I. H. (2012). Affective and physiological responses to stress in girls at elevated risk for depression. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 661–675. doi:10.1017/s0954579412000235 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weinberg, A., & Klonsky, E. D. (2009). Measurement of emotion dysregulation in adolescents. Psychological Assessment, 21, 616–621. doi:10.1037/a0016669 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Widom, C. S., DuMont, K., & Czaja, S. J. (2007). A prospective investigation of major depressive disorder and comorbidity in abused and neglected children grown up. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 49–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
World Health Organization. (2014, September 15–18). Investing in Children: The European Child and Adolescent Health Strategy 2015–2020 and the European Child Maltreatment Prevention Action Plan 2015–2020. Paper presented at the Regional Committee for Europe, 64th Session, Copenhagen, Denmark.Google Scholar
Yanos, P. T., Czaja, S. J., & Widom, C. S. (2010). A prospective examination of service use by abused and neglected children followed up into adulthood. Psychiatric Services, 61, 796–802. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.61.8.796 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed