Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-tf8b9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-01T04:33:05.994Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A structural–developmental psychodynamic approach to psychopathology: Two polarities of experience across the life span

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 July 2009

Sidney J. Blatt  and
Patrick Luyten
Sidney J. Blatt*
Affiliation:
Yale University
Patrick Luyten
Affiliation:
Yale University University of Leuven
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Sidney J. Blatt, Departments of Psychiatry and Psychology, Yale University, 300 George Street, Suite 901, New Haven, CT 06511; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Consistent with principles of developmental psychopathology, this paper presents a broad psychodynamic structural developmental perspective that establishes conceptual continuities between processes of normal personality development, personality organization, concepts of psychopathology, and processes of therapeutic change. The major assumption of this approach is that personality development proceeds in a dialectic synergistic interaction between the development of capacities for interpersonal relatedness and the development of self-definition or identity. Extensive research demonstrates that these two dimensions define two broad types of personality organization, each with a particular experiential mode; preferred forms of cognition, defense, and adaptation; unique qualities of interpersonal relatedness and specific types of object and self-representation. Severe disruptions of this normal dialectic developmental process result in various forms of psychopathology organized in two basic configurations in which there is distorted defensive preoccupation, at different developmental levels, with one of these polarities (relatedness or self-definition) at the expense of the development of the other dimension. This paper reviews empirical findings supporting this approach to normal and disrupted personality development throughout the life cycle and considers its relationship to the internalizing–externalizing distinction in childhood and adolescence, attachment theory, and research on the interaction between biological and psychosocial factors in development across the life span. Finally, we discuss the implications of this approach for intervention and prevention.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 21 , Issue 3: Precursors and Diverse Pathways to Personality Disorder in Children and Adolescents: Part 1 , August 2009 , pp. 793 - 814
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achenbach, T. (1991). Manual for Teacher's Report Form and 1991 profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Achenbach, T. M., & Edelbrock, C. (1983). Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist and the revised child behavior profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Achenbach, T. M., & Edelbrock, C. (1987). Manual for the Youth Self-Report and profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Arieti, S., & Bemporad, J. R. (1978). Severe and mild depression: The therapeutic approach. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Arieti, S., & Bemporad, J. R. (1980). The psychological organization of depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 137, 1360–1365.Google ScholarPubMed
Barber, B. K., & Harmon, E. L. (2002). Violating the self: Parental psychological control of children and adolescents. In Barber, B. K. (Ed.), Intrusive parenting: How psychological control affects children and adolescents (pp. 15–52). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beck, A. T. (1983). Cognitive therapy of depression: New perspectives. In Clayton, P. J. & Barrett, J. E. (Eds.), Treatment of depression: Old controversies and new approaches (pp. 265–290). New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Beebe, B., Jaffe, J., Buck, K., Chen, H., Cohen, P., Blatt, S. J., et al. (2007). Six-week postpartum maternal self-criticism and dependency and 4-month mother–infant self- and interactive contingencies. Developmental Psychology, 43, 1360–1376.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beebe, B., & Lachman, F. M. (1988). The contribution of the mother–infant mutual influence to the origins of self- and object representations. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 5, 305–338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Behrends, R. S., & Blatt, S. J. (1985). Internalization and psychological development throughout the life cycle. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 40, 11–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Besser, A., & Priel, B. (2005). The apple does not fall from the tree: Attachment styles and personality vulnerabilities to depression in three generations of women. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 1052–1073.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Besser, A., Vliegen, N., Luyten, P., & Blatt, S. J. (2008). Systematic empirical investigation of vulnerability to postpartum depression from a psychodynamic perspective: Commentary on issues raised by Blum (2007). Psychoanalytic Psychology, 25, 392–410.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blatt, S. J. (1974). Levels of object representation in anaclitic and introjective depression. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 29, 107–157.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blatt, S. J. (1991). Depression and destructive risk-taking behavior in adolescence. In Lipsitt, L. P. & Mitnick, L. L. (Eds.), Self-regulatory behavior and risk-taking: Causes and consequences (pp. 285–309). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Google Scholar
Blatt, S. J. (1992). The differential effect of psychotherapy and psychoanalysis on anaclitic and introjective patients: The Menninger Psychotherapy Research Project revisited. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 40, 691–724.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blatt, S. J. (1998). Contributions of psychoanalysis to the understanding and treatment of depression. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 46, 723–752.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blatt, S. J. (2002). Patient variables: Anaclitic and introjective dimensions. In Sledge, W. & Hershen, M. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of psychotherapy (pp. 349–357). New York: Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blatt, S. J. (2004). Experiences of depression: Theoretical, clinical and research perspectives. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blatt, S. J. (2006). A fundamental polarity in psychoanalysis: Implications for personality development, psychopathology, and the therapeutic process. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 26, 492–518.Google Scholar
Blatt, S. J. (2008). Polarities of experience: Relatedness and self-definition in personality development, psychopathology, and the therapeutic process. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Press.Google Scholar
Blatt, S. J., & Auerbach, J. S. (1988). Differential cognitive disturbances in three types of “borderline” patients. Journal of Personality Disorders, 2, 198–211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blatt, S. J., Auerbach, J. S., & Aryan, M. (1998). Representational structures and the therapeutic process. In Bornstein, R. F. & Masling, J. M. (Eds.), Empirical studies of psychoanalytic theories: Vol. 8. Empirical investigations of the therapeutic hour (pp. 63–107). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blatt, S. J., Auerbach, J. S., & Behrends, R. S. (2008). Changes in representation of self and significant others in the therapeutic process: Links among representation, internalization and mentalization. In Slade, A., Jurist, E., & Bergner, S. (Eds.), Mind to mind: Infant research, neuroscience and psychoanalysis (pp. 225–253). New York: Other Press.Google Scholar
Blatt, S. J., & Behrends, R. S. (1987). Internalization, separation–individuation, and the nature of therapeutic action. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 68, 279–297.Google ScholarPubMed
Blatt, S. J., Besser, A., & Ford, R. Q. (2007). Two primary configurations of psychopathology and change in thought disorder in long-term, intensive, inpatient treatment of seriously disturbed young adults. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 1561–1567.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blatt, S. J., & Blass, R. B. (1990). Attachment and separateness: A dialectic model of the products and processes of psychological development. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 45, 107–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blatt, S. J., & Blass, R. (1996). Relatedness and self definition: A dialectic model of personality development. In Noam, G. G. & Fischer, K. W. (Eds.), Development and vulnerabilities in close relationships (pp. 309–338). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Blatt, S. J., Cornell, C. E., & Eshkol, E. (1993). Personality style, differential vulnerability and clinical course in immunological and cardiovascular disease. Clinical Psychology Review, 13, 421–450.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blatt, S. J., D'Afflitti, J. P., & Quinlan, D. M. (1976). Experiences of depression in normal young adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 85, 383–389.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blatt, S. J., D'Afflitti, J. P., & Quinlan, D. M. (1979). Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ). Unpublished manuscript, Yale University.Google Scholar
Blatt, S. J., & Ford, R. (1994). Therapeutic change: An object relations perspective. New York: Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blatt, S. J., Hart, B., Quinlan, D. M., Leadbeater, B., & Auerbach, J. (1993). Interpersonal and self-critical dysphoria and behavioral problems in adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 22, 253–269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blatt, S. J., & Homann, E. (1992). Parent–child interaction in the etiology of dependent and self-critical depression. Clinical Psychology Review, 12, 47–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blatt, S. J., & Levy, K. N. (1998). A psychodynamic approach to the diagnosis of psychopathology. In Barron, J. W. (Ed.), Making diagnosis meaningful (pp. 73–109). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Press.Google Scholar
Blatt, S. J., & Luyten, P. (in press). Reactivating the psychodynamic approach to classify psychopathology. In Millon, T., Krueger, R., & Simonsen, E. (Eds.), Contemporary directions in psychopathology: Toward DSM-V, ICD-11, and beyond. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Blatt, S. J., & Maroudas, C. (1992). Convergence of psychoanalytic and cognitive behavioral theories of depression. Psychoanalytic Psychology 9, 157–190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blatt, S. J., Quinlan, D. M., Chevron, E. S.McDonald, C., & Zuroff, D. (1982). Dependency and self-criticism: Psychological dimensions of depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50, 113–124.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blatt, S. J., & Shahar, G. (2004a). Stability of the patient-by-treatment interaction in the Menninger Psychotherapy Research Project. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 68, 23–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blatt, S. J., & Shahar, G. (2004b). Psychoanalysis: For what, with whom, and how: A comparison with psychotherapy. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 52, 393–447.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blatt, S. J., & Shichman, S. (1981). Antisocial behavior and personality organization. In Tuttman, S., Kaye, C., & Zimmerman, M. (Eds.), Object and self: A developmental approach: Essays in honor of Edith Jacobson (pp. 325–367). Madison, WI: International Universities Press.Google Scholar
Blatt, S. J., & Shichman, S. (1983). Two primary configurations of psychopathology. Psychoanalysis and Contemporary Thought, 6, 187–254.Google Scholar
Blatt, S. J., Stayner, D., Auerbach, J., & Behrends, R. S. (1996). Change in object and self representations in long-term, intensive, inpatient treatment of seriously disturbed adolescents and young adults. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 59, 82–107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blatt, S. J., & Zuroff, D. C. (1992). Interpersonal relatedness and self-definition: Two prototypes for depression. Clinical Psychology Review, 12, 527–562.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blatt, S. J., & Zuroff, D. C. (2005). Empirical evaluation of the assumptions in identifying evidence based treatments in mental health. Clinical Psychology Review, 25, 459–486.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blatt, S. J., Zuroff, D. C., Hawley, L., & Auerbach, J. S. (in press). An attempt to identify processes that contribute to sustained therapeutic change. Psychotherapy Research.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1988a). Developmental psychology comes of age. American Journal of Psychiatry, 145, 1–10.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1988b). A secure base: Clinical applications of attachment theory. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Calabrese, M. L., Farber, B. A., & Westen, D. (2005). The relationship of adult attachment constructs to object relational patterns of representing self and others. Journal of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis and Dynamic Psychiatry, 33, 513–530.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Charney, D. S., Barlow, D. H., Botteron, K., Cohen, J., Goldman, D., Gur, J. D., et al. (2002). Neuroscience Research Agenda to guide development of a pathophysiologically based classification system. In Kupfer, D. J., First, M. B., & Reigier, D. A. (Eds.), A research agenda for DSM-V (pp. 31–83). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D. (1984). The emergence of developmental psychopathology. Child Development, 55, 1–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Aber, L. J. (1986). Early precursors of later depression: An organizational perspective. In Lipsett, L. L. (Ed.), Advances in infant research (Vol. 3, pp. 87–103). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Gunnar, M. R. (2008). Integrating biological measures into the design and evaluation of preventive interventions. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 737–743.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (1996). Equifinality and multifinality in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 597–600.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Schneider-Rosen, K. (1984). Toward a transactional model of childhood depression. In Cicchetti, D. & Schneider-Rosen, K. (Eds.), Childhood depression (pp. 5–28). San Francisco, CA: Jossey–Bass.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Sroufe, L. A. (1976). The relationship between affective and cognitive development in Down's syndrome infants. Child Development, 47, 920–929.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., Toth, S., & Bush, M. (1988). Developmental psychopathology and incompetence in childhood: Suggestions for intervention. In Lahey, B. B. & Kazdin, A. E. (Eds.), Advances in clinical child psychology (Vol. 11, pp. 1–71). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Cole, D. A. (1991). Preliminary support for a competence-based model of depression in children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 181–190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cole, D. A., & Carpentieri, S. (1990). Social status and the comorbidity of child depression and conduct disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 58, 748–757.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cole, P. M., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (1992). Emotional dysregulation in disruptive behavior disorders. In Cicchetti, D. & Toth, S. L. (Eds.), Rochester symposium on developmental psychopathology: Vol. 4. Developmental perspectives on depression (pp. 173–209). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.Google Scholar
Colton, M. E., Gore, S., & Aseltine, R. H. (1991). The patterning of distress and disorder in a community sample of high school aged youth. In Colton, M. E. & Gore, S. (Eds.), Adolescent stress, causes and consequences (pp. 157–181). New York: Aldine.Google Scholar
Compas, B. E. (1987). Stress and life events during childhood and adolescence. Clinical Psychology Review, 7, 275–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Compas, B. E., Slavin, L. A., Wagner, B. M., & Vannata, K. (1986). Relationship of life events and social support with psychological dysfunction among adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 15, 205–221.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cummings, E. M., & Cicchetti, D. (1990). Toward a transactional model of relations between attachment and depression. In Greenberg, M. T., Cicchetti, D., & Cummings, E. M. (Eds.), Attachment in the preschool years: Theory, research, and intervention (pp. 339–372). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Diamond, D., Kaslow, N., Coonerty, S., & Blatt, S. J. (1990). Change in separation–individuation and intersubjectivity in long-term treatment. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 7, 363–397.Google Scholar
Dishion, T. L., Patterson, G. R., Stoolmiller, M., & Skinner, M. L. (1991). Family, school, and behavioral antecedents to early adolescent involvement with antisocial peers. Developmental Psychology, 27, 172–180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eklund, M., & Nilsson, A. (1999). Changes in object relations in long-term mentally ill patients treated in a psychiatric day-care unit. Psychotherapy Bulletin, 9, 167–183.Google Scholar
Elliott, D. S., Huizinga, D., & Menard, S. (1989). Multiple problem youth: Delinquency, substance use, and mental health problems. New York: Springer–Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society (2nd ed.). New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Feldman, R., & Blatt, S. J. (1996). Precursors of relatedness and self-definition in mother–infant interaction. In Masling, J. & Bornstein, R. F. (Eds.), Psychoanalytic perspectives on developmental psychology (pp. 1–42). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Fertuck, E., Bucci, W., Blatt, S. J., & Ford, R. Q. (2004). Verbal representation and therapeutic change in anaclitic and introjective patients. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 41, 13–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fischer, K. W., Ayoub, C., Singh, I., Noam, G., Maraganore, A., & Raya, P. (1997). Psychopathology as adaptive development along distinctive pathways. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 749–779.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fonagy, P. (2008). Foreword in Blatt, S. J. (Ed.), Polarities of experience: Relatedness and self-definition in personality development, psychopathology and the therapeutic process (pp. ix–xiii). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Fonagy, P., & Bateman, A. (2006). Mechanisms of change in mentalization-based treatment of BPD. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62, 411–430.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fonagy, P., Moran, G. S., Edgcumbe, R., Kennedy, H., & Target, M. (1993). The roles of mental representations and mental processes in therapeutic action. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 48, 9–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freud, S. (1957). Mourning and melancholia. In Strachey, J. (Ed. & Trans.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 14, pp. 243–258). London: Hogarth Press. (Original work published 1917)Google Scholar
Freud, S. (1961). Civilization and its discontents. In Strachey, J. (Ed. & Trans.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 21, pp. 64–145). London: Hogarth Press. (Original work published 1930)Google Scholar
Freud, S. (1963). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. In Strachey, J. (Ed. & Trans.), The standard edition of the complete works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 7, pp. 135–243). London: Hogarth Press. (Original work published 1905)Google Scholar
Frost, R. O., Lahart, C. M., & Rosenblatt, R. (1991). The development of perfectionism: A study of daughters and their mothers. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 15, 469–489.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
George, C., Kaplan, N., & Main, M. (1996). Adult Attachment Interview. Unpublished manuscript, University of California at Berkeley.Google Scholar
Gruen, R. J., & Blatt, S. J. (1990). Change in self- and object representation during long-term dynamically oriented treatment. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 7, 399–422.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gunnar, M., & Quevedo, K. (2007). The neurobiology of stress and development. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 145–173.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harpaz-Rotem, I., & Blatt, S. J. (2005). Changes in representations of a self designated significant other in long term intensive inpatient treatment of seriously disturbed adolescents and young adults. Psychiatry—Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 68, 266–282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harpaz-Rotem, I., & Blatt, S. J. (2009). A pathway to therapeutic change: Changes in self-representation in the treatment of adolescent and young adults. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 72, 32–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. R. (1990). Love and work: An attachment–theoretical perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 270–280.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helgeson, V. S. (1994). Relation of agency and communion to well-being: Evidence and potential exploration. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 412–428.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horwitz, A. V., & White, H. R. (1987). Intelligence and delinquency: A revisionist review. American Sociological Review, 42, 571–587.Google Scholar
Hudziak, J. J., Achenbach, T. M., Althoff, R. R., & Pine, S. P. (2007). A dimensional approach to developmental psychopathology. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 16, 16–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jessor, R., & Jessor, S. (1977). Problem behavior and psychosocial development: A longitudinal study of youth. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Kandel, D. B., Kessler, R. C., & Margulies, R. Z. (1978). Antecedents of adolescent initiation into stages of drug use: A developmental analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 7, 13–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kovacs, M., Paulouskas, S., Gatsonis, C., & Richards, C. (1988). Developmental stage and the expression of depressive disorders in children: An empirical analysis. In Cicchetti, D. & Rosen-Schneider, K. (Eds.), Childhood depression: New directions for childhood development. San Francisco, CA: Jossey–Bass.Google Scholar
Krueger, R. F., Markon, K. E., Patrick, C. J., Benning, S. D., & Kramer, M. D. (2007). Linking antisocial behavior, substance use, and personality: An integrative quantitative model of the adult externalizing spectrum. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 645–666.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krueger, R. F., Watson, D., & Barlow, D. H. (2005). Introduction to the special section: Toward a dimensionally based taxonomy of psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 491–493.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kupfer, D. J., First, M. B., & Reiger, D. A. (2002). Introduction. In Kupfer, D. J., First, M. B., & Reiger, D. E. (Eds.), A research agenda for DSM-V (pp. xv–xxiii). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Lahey, B. B., Rathouz, P. J., Van Hulle, C., Urbano, R. C., Krueger, R. F., Applegate, B., et al. (2008). Testing structural models of DSM-IV symptoms of common forms of child and adolescent psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 187–206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lam, D. H., Wright, K., & Smith, N. (2004). Dysfunctional assumptions in bipolar disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 79, 193–199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laplanche, J., & Pontalis, J. B. (1974). The language of psycho-analysis (Micholson-Smith, D., Trans.). New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Leadbeater, B. J., Hellner, I., Allen, J., & Aber, J. L. (1989). Assessment of interpersonal negotiation strategies in youth engaged in problem behaviors. Developmental Psychology, 25, 465–472.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leadbeater, B. J., Kuperminc, G. P., Blatt, S. J., & Hertzog, C. (1999). A multivariate mode of gender differences in adolescent's internalizing and externalizing problems. Developmental Psychology, 35, 1268–1282.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leadbeater, B. J., & Linares, L. O. (1992). Depressive symptoms in Black and Puerto Rican adolescent mothers in the first 3 years postpartum. Development and Psychopathology, 4, 449–466.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levy, K. N., Edell, W. S., & McGlashan, T. H. (2007). Depressive experiences in inpatients with borderline personality disorder. Psychiatric Quarterly, 78, 129–143.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lieberman, M. D. (2007). Social cognitive neuroscience: A review of core processes. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 259–289.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loeber, R. (1988). Natural histories of conduct problems, delinquency, and associated substance abuse: Evidence for developmental progressions. In Lahey, B. B. & Kazdin, A. E. (Eds.), Advances in clinical child psychology (Vol. 11, pp. 73–115). New York: Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loeber, R. (1990). Development and risk factors of juvenile antisocial behavior and delinquency. Clinical Psychology Review, 10, 1–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loevinger, J. (1976). Ego development. San Francisco, CA: Jossey–Bass.Google Scholar
Luthar, S. S. (1991). Vulnerability and resilience: A study of high-risk adolescents. Child Development, 62, 600–616.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luyten, P., & Blatt, S. J. (2007). Looking back towards the future: Is it time to change the DSM approach to psychiatric disorders? The case of depression. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 70, 85–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luyten, P., & Blatt, S. J. (2009). Reconciling theory-driven and empirically-derived models of psychopathology: The central role of relatedness and self-definition. Manuscript submitted for publication.Google Scholar
Luyten, P., Blatt, S. J., & Corveleyn, J. (2005a). Introduction. In Corveleyn, J., Luyten, P., & Blatt, S. J. (Eds.), The theory and treatment of depression: Towards a dynamic interactionism model (pp. 5–15). Leuven, Belgium: University of Leuven Press.Google Scholar
Luyten, P., Blatt, S. J., & Corveleyn, J. (2005b). The convergence among psychodynamic and cognitive–behavioral theories of depression: Theoretical overview. In Corveleyn, J., Luyten, P., & Blatt, S. J. (Eds.), The theory and treatment of depression: Towards a dynamic interactionism model (pp. 67–94). Leuven, Belgium: University of Leuven Press.Google Scholar
Luyten, P., Blatt, S. J., van Houdenhove, B., & Corveleyn, J. (2006). Depression research and treatment: Are we skating to where the puck is going to be? Clinical Psychology Review, 26, 985–999.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luyten, P., Corveleyn, J., & Blatt, S. J. (2005). The convergence among psychodynamic and cognitive–behavioral theories of depression: A critical review of empirical research. In Corveleyn, J., Luyten, P., & Blatt, S. J. (Eds.), The theory and treatment of depression: Towards a dynamic interactionism model (pp. 95–136). Leuven, Belgium: University of Leuven Press.Google Scholar
Luyten, P., Viegen, N., Van Houdenhove, B., & Blatt, S. J. (2009). Equifinality, multifinality and the rediscovery of the importance of early experiences: Pathways from early adversity to psychiatric and (functional) somatic disorders. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 63, 27–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lyons-Ruth, K. (2001). The two-person construction of defenses: Disorganized attachment strategies, unintegrated mental states and hostile/helpless relational processes. Psychologist Psychoanalyst, 21, 40–45.Google Scholar
Lyons-Ruth, K., Zeanah, C. H., & Benoit, D. (2003). Disorder and risk for disorder during infancy and toddlerhood. In Mash, E. J. & Barkley, R. A. (Eds.), Child psychopathology (2nd ed., pp. 589–631). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Main, M., Kaplan, L., & Cassidy, J. (1985). Security in infancy, childhood and adulthood: A move to the level of representation. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 50(1–2, Serial No. 209), 66–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manzi, C., Vignoles, V. L., Regalia, C., & Scabini, E. (2006). Cohesion and enmeshment revisited: Differentiation, identity, and well-being in two European cultures. Journal of Marriage and Family, 68, 673–689.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masten, A. S., Garmezy, N., Tellegen, A., Pellegrini, D. S., Larkin, K., & Larsen, A. (1988). Competence and stress in school children: The moderating effects of individual and family qualities. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 29, 745–764.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGrath, E., Keita, G. P., Strickland, B. R., & Russo, N. F. (1990). Women and depression. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Meyer, B., & Pilkonis, P. A. (2005). An attachment model of personality disorders. In. Lenzenweger, M. F. & Clarkin, J. F. (Eds.), Major theories of personality disorder (2nd ed., pp. 231–281). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. (2007). Attachment in adulthood: Structure, dynamics, and change. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Newcomb, M. D., & Bentler, M. D. (1988). Consequences of adolescent drug use: Impact on the lives of young adults. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Philips, B., Wennberg, P., Werbert, A., & Schubert, J. (2006). Young adults in psychoanalytic psychotherapy: Patient characteristics and therapy outcome. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 79, 89–106.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Piaget, J. (1954). The construction of reality in the child (Cook, M., Trans.). New York: Basic Books. (Original work published 1937)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Piper, W. E., Joyce, A. S., McCullum, M., Azim, H. F., & Ogrodniczuk, J. S. (2002). Interpretive and supportive psychotherapies: Matching therapy and patient personality. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in general population. Applied Psychology Measure, 3, 385–401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reinherz, H. Z., Frost, A. K., Stewart-Berghauer, G., Pakiz, B., Kennedy, K., & Schille, C. (1990). The many faces of correlates of depressive symptoms in adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 10, 455–471.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reinherz, H. Z., Stewart-Berghaver, G., Pakiz, B., Frost, A. K., Moeykens, B. A., & Holmes, W. M. (1989). The relationship of early risk and current mediators to depressive symptomology in adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 942–947.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robbins, D. R., & Alessi, N. E. (1985). Depressive symptoms and suicidal behavior in adolescents. Journal of Psychiatry, 14, 588–592.Google Scholar
Robins, L. N., & Rutter, M. (1990). Straight and devious pathways from childhood to adulthood. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Rutter, M. (1979). Protective factors in children's responses to stress and disadvantage. In Kent, M. W. & Rolfe, J. E. (Eds.), Primary prevention of psychopathology: Vol. 3. Social competence in children (pp. 49–74). Hanover, NH: University Press of New England.Google Scholar
Safran, J. D., & Muran, J. C. (2000). Negotiating the therapeutic alliance: A relational treatment guide. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Shahar, G. (2006). Clinical action: Introduction to the special section on the action perspective in clinical psychology. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62, 1053–1064.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shahar, G., Blatt, S. J., & Ford, R. Q. (2003). The identification of mixed anaclitic–introjective psychopathology in young adult inpatients. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 20, 84–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shahar, G., Trower, P., Iqbal, Z., Birchwood, M., Davidson, L., & Chadwick, P. (2004). The person in recovery from acute and severe psychosis: The role of dependency, self-criticism, and efficacy. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 74, 480–488.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sibley, C. G. (2007). The association between working models of attachment and personality: Toward an integrative framework operationalizing global relational models. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 90–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soenens, B., Elliot, A. J., Goossens, L., Vansteenkiste, M., Luyten, P., & Duriez, B. (2005). The intergenerational transmission of perfectionism: Parents' psychological control as an intervening variable. Journal of Family Psychology, 19, 358–366.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soenens, B., Vansteenkiste, M., & Luyten, P. (in press). Towards a domain-specific approach to the study of parental psychological control: Distinguishing between dependency-oriented and achievement-oriented psychological control. Journal of Personality.Google Scholar
Sroufe, L. A. (1997). Psychopathology as an outcome of development. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 251–268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stern, D. N. (1985). The interpersonal world of the infant: A view from psychoanalysis and developmental psychology. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Sullivan, H. S. (1953). The interpersonal theory of psychiatry. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Swearingen, E. M., & Cohen, L. H. (1985). Life events and psychological distress: A prospective study of young adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 24, 103–109.Google Scholar
Szumotalska, E. (1992). Severity and type of depressive affect as related to perceptual styles: Relationship of anaclitic versus introjective depressive configuration to holistic versus analytic similarity judgment. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, New School for Social Research, New York.Google Scholar
Thompson-Brenner, H., & Westen, D. (2005). Personality subtypes in eating disorders: Validation of a classification in a naturalistic sample. British Journal of Psychiatry, 186, 516–524.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tsuang, M. T., Stone, W. S., Tarbox, S. I., & Faraone, S. V. (2003). Implications of schizotaxia for the prevention of schizophrenia. In Grispini, A. (Ed.), Preventive strategies for schizophrenic disorders: Basic principles, opportunities and limits (pp. 225–243). Rome: Giovanni Fioriti Editore.Google Scholar
Watson, D. (2005). Rethinking the mood and anxiety disorders: A quantitative hierarchical model for DSM-V. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 522–532.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Webster, N. (1966). Third new international dictionary. Springfield, MA: G. & C. Merriam.Google Scholar
Westen, D., Moses, M. J., Silk, K. R., Lohr, N. E., Cohen, R., & Segal, H. (1992). Quality of depressive experience in borderline personality disorder and major depression: When depression is not just depression. Journal of Personality Disorders, 6, 382–393.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Westen, D., Novotny, C. M., & Thompson-Brenner, H. (2004). The empirical status of empirically supported psychotherapies: Assumptions, findings, and reporting in controlled clinical trials. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 631–663.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whiteside, M. F., Busch, F., & Horner, T. (1976). From egocentric to cooperative play in young children: A normative job study. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 15, 294–313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Widiger, T. A., & Trull, T. J. (2007). Plate tectonics in the classification of personality disorder: Shifting to a dimensional model. American Psychologist, 62, 71–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Witkin, H. A. (1965). Psychological differentiation and forms of pathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 70, 317–336.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wixom, J., Ludolph, P., & Westen, D. (1993). The quality of depression in adolescents with borderline personality disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 1172–1177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yamaguchi, K., & Kendal, D. (1987). Drug use and other determinants of premarital pregnancy and its outcomes: A dynamic analysis of competing life events. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 49, 257–270.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zuroff, D. C., Mongrain, M., & Santor, D. A. (2004). Conceptualizing and measuring personality vulnerability to depression: Commentary on Coyne and Whiffen (1995). Psychological Bulletin, 130, 489–511.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed