Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7fkt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T21:30:57.687Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Sex differences in socioemotional functioning, attentional bias, and gray matter volume in maltreated children: A multilevel investigation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 November 2015

Philip A. Kelly ,
Essi Viding ,
Vanessa B. Puetz ,
Amy L. Palmer ,
Andrea Mechelli ,
Jean-Baptiste Pingault ,
Sophie Samuel  and
Eamon J. McCrory
Philip A. Kelly*
Affiliation:
University College London Anna Freud Centre, London
Essi Viding
Affiliation:
University College London
Vanessa B. Puetz
Affiliation:
University College London
Amy L. Palmer
Affiliation:
University College London
Andrea Mechelli
Affiliation:
King's College London
Jean-Baptiste Pingault
Affiliation:
University College London
Sophie Samuel
Affiliation:
University College London
Eamon J. McCrory
Affiliation:
University College London Anna Freud Centre, London
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Philip A. Kelly, Division of Psychology and Language Sciences, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1 6BT, UK; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

While maltreatment is known to impact social and emotional functioning, threat processing, and neural structure, the potentially dimorphic influence of sex on these outcomes remains relatively understudied. We investigated sex differences across these domains in a large community sample of children aged 10 to 14 years (n = 122) comprising 62 children with verified maltreatment experience and 60 well-matched nonmaltreated peers. The maltreated group relative to the nonmaltreated comparison group exhibited poorer social and emotional functioning (more peer problems and heightened emotional reactivity). Cognitively, they displayed a pattern of attentional avoidance of threat in a visual dot-probe task. Similar patterns were observed in males and females in these domains. Reduced gray matter volume was found to characterize the maltreated group in the medial orbitofrontal cortex, bilateral middle temporal lobes, and bilateral supramarginal gyrus; sex differences were observed only in the supramarginal gyrus. In addition, a disordinal interaction between maltreatment exposure and sex was found in the postcentral gyrus. Finally, attentional avoidance to threat mediated the relationship between maltreatment and emotional reactivity, and medial orbitofrontal cortex gray matter volume mediated the relationship between maltreatment and peer functioning. Similar mediation patterns were observed across sexes. This study highlights the utility of combining multiple levels of analysis when studying the “latent vulnerability” engendered by childhood maltreatment and yields tentative findings regarding a neural basis of sex differences in long-term outcomes for maltreated children.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 27 , Special Issue 4pt2: Multilevel Developmental Perspectives on Child Maltreatment , November 2015 , pp. 1591 - 1609
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adolphs, R., Damasio, H., Tranel, D., Cooper, G., & Damasio, A. R. (2000). A role for somatosensory cortices in the visual recognition of emotion as revealed by three-dimensional lesion mapping. Journal of Neuroscience, 20, 2683–2690.Google Scholar
Adolphs, R., Tranel, D., & Damasio, H. (2001). Emotion recognition from faces and prosody following temporal lobectomy. Neuropsychology, 15, 396.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alink, L. R., Cicchetti, D., Kim, J., & Rogosch, F. A. (2012). Longitudinal associations among child maltreatment, social functioning, and cortisol regulation. Developmental Psychology, 48, 224–236.Google Scholar
Amir, N., McNally, R. J., Riemann, B. C., Burns, J., Lorenz, M., & Mullen, J. T. (1996). Suppression of the emotional Stroop effect by increased anxiety in patients with social phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34, 945–948.Google Scholar
Anda, R. F., Felitti, V. J., Bremner, J. D., Walker, J. D., Whitfield, C., Perry, B. D., et al. (2006). The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood: A convergence of evidence from neurobiology and epidemiology. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 256, 174–186.Google Scholar
Andreano, J. M., Dickerson, B. C., & Barrett, L. F. (2014). Sex differences in the persistence of the amygdala response to negative material. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 9, 1388–1394.Google Scholar
Ashburner, J. (2007). A fast diffeomorphic image registration algorithm. NeuroImage, 38, 95–113.Google Scholar
Ashburner, J., & Friston, K. J. (2005). Unified segmentation. NeuroImage, 26, 839–851.Google Scholar
Bar-Haim, Y. (2010). Attention Bias Modification (ABM): A novel treatment for anxiety disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 859–870.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bar-Haim, Y., Holoshitz, Y., Eldar, S., Frenkel, T. I., Muller, D., Charney, D. S., et al. (2010). Life-threatening danger and suppression of attention bias to threat. Life, 167, 694–698.Google Scholar
Beer, J. S., John, O. P., Scabini, D., & Knight, R. T. (2006). Orbitofrontal cortex and social behavior: Integrating self-monitoring and emotion-cognition interactions. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 18, 871–879.Google Scholar
Benjamini, Y., & Hochberg, Y. (1995). Controlling the false discovery rate: A practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series B (Methodological), 57, 289–300.Google Scholar
Bernard, K., Dozier, M., Bick, J., Lewis-Morrarty, E., Lindhiem, O., & Carlson, E. (2012). Enhancing attachment organization among maltreated children: Results of a randomized clinical trial. Child Development, 83, 623–636.Google Scholar
Bolger, K. E., & Patterson, C. J. (2001). Developmental pathways from child maltreatment to peer rejection. Child Development, 72, 549–568.Google Scholar
Bolger, K. E., Patterson, C. J., & Kupersmidt, J. B. (1998). Peer relationships and self-esteem among children who have been maltreated. Child Development, 69, 1171–1197.Google Scholar
Bos, K., Zeanah, C. H., Fox, N. A., Drury, S. S., McLaughlin, K. A., & Nelson, C. A. (2011). Psychiatric outcomes in young children with a history of institutionalization. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 19, 15–24.Google Scholar
Bradley, B. P., Mogg, K., White, J., Groom, C., & De Bono, J. (1999). Attentional bias for emotional faces in generalized anxiety disorder. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38, 267–278.Google Scholar
Briere, J. (1996). Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children (TSCC). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.Google Scholar
Britton, J. C., Bar-Haim, Y., Clementi, M. A., Sankin, L. S., Chen, G., Shechner, T., et al. (2013). Training-associated changes and stability of attention bias in youth: Implications for attention bias modification treatment for pediatric anxiety. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 4, 52–64.Google Scholar
Canli, T., Desmond, J. E., Zhao, Z., & Gabrieli, J. D. (2002). Sex differences in the neural basis of emotional memories. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99, 10789–10794.Google Scholar
Chen, X., Sachdev, P. S., Wen, W., & Anstey, K. J. (2007). Sex differences in regional gray matter in healthy individuals aged 44–48 years: A voxel-based morphometric study. NeuroImage, 36, 691–699.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Blender, J. A. (2006). A multiple-levels-of-analysis perspective on resilience: Implications for the developing brain, neural plasticity, and preventive interventions. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 248–258.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Curtis, W. J. (2007). Multilevel perspectives on pathways to resilient functioning. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 627–629.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Dawson, G. (2002). Multiple levels of analysis. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 417–420.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Lynch, M. (1995). Failures in the expectable environment and their impact on individual development: The case of child maltreatment. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 2. Risk, disorder and adaptation (pp. 32–71). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Toth, S. L. (2006). Fostering secure attachment in infants in maltreating families through preventive interventions. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 623–649.Google Scholar
Curtis, W. J., & Cicchetti, D. (2013). Affective facial expression processing in 15-month-old infants who have experienced maltreatment: An event-related potential study. Child Maltreatment, 18, 140–154.Google Scholar
Dahl, R. E., & Gunnar, M. R. (2009). Heightened stress responsiveness and emotional reactivity during pubertal maturation: Implications for psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 1–6.Google Scholar
Dalgleish, T., Spinks, H., Yiend, J., & Kuyken, W. (2001). Autobiographical memory style in seasonal affective disorder and its relationship to future symptom remission. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 335.Google Scholar
De Bellis, M. D. (2001). Developmental traumatology: The psychobiological development of maltreated children and its implications for research, treatment, and policy. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 539–564.Google Scholar
De Bellis, M. D., & Keshavan, M. S. (2003). Sex differences in brain maturation in maltreatment-related pediatric posttraumatic stress disorder. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 27, 103–117.Google Scholar
De Bellis, M. D., Keshavan, M. S., Clark, D. B., Casey, B., Giedd, J. N., Boring, A. M., et al. (1999). Developmental traumatology: Part II. Brain development. Biological Psychiatry, 45, 1271–1284.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Bellis, M. D., & Kuchibhatla, M. (2006). Cerebellar columes in pediatric maltreatment-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 60, 697–703.Google Scholar
De Brito, S. A., Viding, E., Sebastian, C. L., Kelly, P. A., Mechelli, A., Maris, H., et al. (2013). Reduced orbitofrontal and temporal grey matter in a community sample of maltreated children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 105–112.Google Scholar
De Vries, G. J. (2004). Minireview: Sex differences in adult and developing brains: Compensation, compensation, compensation. Endocrinology, 145, 1063–1068.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Vries, G. J., & Södersten, P. (2009). Sex differences in the brain: The relation between structure and function. Hormones and Behavior, 55, 589–596.Google Scholar
Dolcos, F., LaBar, K. S., & Cabeza, R. (2004). Interaction between the amygdala and the medial temporal lobe memory system predicts better memory for emotional events. Neuron, 42, 855–863.Google Scholar
Domes, G., Schulze, L., Böttger, M., Grossmann, A., Hauenstein, K., Wirtz, P. H., et al. (2010). The neural correlates of sex differences in emotional reactivity and emotion regulation. Human Brain Mapping, 31, 758–769.Google Scholar
Donegan, N. H., Sanislow, C. A., Blumberg, H. P., Fulbright, R. K., Lacadie, C., Skudlarski, P., et al. (2003). Amygdala hyperreactivity in borderline personality disorder: Implications for emotional dysregulation. Biological Psychiatry, 54, 1284–1293.Google Scholar
Dozier, M., Peloso, E., Lewis, E., Laurenceau, J. P., & Levine, S. (2008). Effects of an attachment-based intervention on the cortisol production of infants and toddlers in foster care. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 845–859.Google Scholar
DuMont, K. A., Widom, C. S., & Czaja, S. J. (2007). Predictors of resilience in abused and neglected children grown-up: The role of individual and neighborhood characteristics. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31, 255–274.Google Scholar
Edmiston, E. E., Wang, F., Mazure, C. M., Guiney, J., Sinha, R., Mayes, L. C., et al. (2011). Corticostriatal-limbic gray matter morphology in adolescents with self-reported exposure to childhood maltreatment. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 165, 1069–1077.Google Scholar
Evans, S. E., Steel, A. L., & DiLillo, D. (2013). Child maltreatment severity and adult trauma symptoms: Does perceived social support play a buffering role? Child Abuse & Neglect, 37, 934–943.Google Scholar
Garner, M., Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (2006). Orienting and maintenance of gaze to facial expressions in social anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 760.Google Scholar
Giedd, J. N., & Rapoport, J. L. (2010). Structural MRI of pediatric brain development: What have we learned and where are we going? Neuron, 67, 728–734.Google Scholar
Gilbert, R., Widom, C. S., Browne, K., Fergusson, D., Webb, E., & Janson, S. (2009). Burden and consequences of child maltreatment in high-income countries. Lancet, 373, 68–81.Google Scholar
Goodman, R. (1997). The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38, 581–586.Google Scholar
Hakamata, Y., Lissek, S., Bar-Haim, Y., Britton, J. C., Fox, N. A., Leibenluft, E., et al. (2010). Attention bias modification treatment: A meta-analysis toward the establishment of novel treatment for anxiety. Biological Psychiatry, 68, 982–990.Google Scholar
Hanson, J. L., Chung, M. K., Avants, B. B., Shirtcliff, E. A., Gee, J. C., Davidson, R. J., et al. (2010). Early stress is associated with alterations in the orbitofrontal cortex: A tensor-based morphometry investigation of brain structure and behavioral risk. Journal of Neuroscience, 30, 7466–7472.Google Scholar
Hart, J., Gunnar, M., & Cicchetti, D. (1995). Salivary cortisol in maltreated children: Evidence of relations between neuroendocrine activity and social competence. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 11–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helfinstein, S. M., White, L. K., Bar-Haim, Y., & Fox, N. A. (2008). Affective primes suppress attention bias to threat in socially anxious individuals. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46, 799–810.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holland, A. C., Addis, D. R., & Kensinger, E. A. (2011). The neural correlates of specific versus general autobiographical memory construction and elaboration. Neuropsychologia, 49, 3164–3177.Google Scholar
Hooker, C. I., Verosky, S. C., Germine, L. T., Knight, R. T., & D'Esposito, M. (2008). Mentalizing about emotion and its relationship to empathy. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 3, 204–217.Google Scholar
Hovens, J., Giltay, E., Wiersma, J., Spinhoven, P., Penninx, B., & Zitman, F. (2012). Impact of childhood life events and trauma on the course of depressive and anxiety disorders. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 126, 198–207.Google Scholar
Hovens, J., Wiersma, J., Giltay, E., Van Oppen, P., Spinhoven, P., Penninx, B., et al. (2010). Childhood life events and childhood trauma in adult patients with depressive, anxiety and comorbid disorders vs. controls. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 122, 66–74.Google Scholar
Infurna, F. J., Rivers, C. T., Reich, J., & Zautra, A. J. (2015). Childhood trauma and personal mastery: Their influence on emotional reactivity to everyday events in a community sample of middle-aged adults. PLOS ONE, 10, e0121840.Google Scholar
Kaufman, J., Jones, B., Stieglitz, E., Vitulano, L., & Mannarino, A. P. (1994). The use of multiple informants to assess children's maltreatment experiences. Journal of Family Violence, 9, 227–248.Google Scholar
Keyes, K. M., Eaton, N. R., Krueger, R. F., McLaughlin, K. A., Wall, M. M., Grant, B. F., et al. (2012). Childhood maltreatment and the structure of common psychiatric disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry, 200, 107–115.Google Scholar
Kim, J., & Cicchetti, D. (2003). Social self-efficacy and behavior problems in maltreated and nonmaltreated children. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 106–117.Google Scholar
Kim, J., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). Longitudinal pathways linking child maltreatment, emotion regulation, peer relations, and psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 706–716.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koolschijn, P. C. M. P., & Crone, E. A. (2013). Sex differences and structural brain maturation from childhood to early adulthood. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 5, 106–118.Google Scholar
Koster, E. H. W., Verschuere, B., Crombez, G., & Van Damme, S. (2005). Time-course of attention for threatening pictures in high and low trait anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 1087–1098.Google Scholar
Leist, T., & Dadds, M. R. (2009). Adolescents' ability to read different emotional faces relates to their history of maltreatment and type of psychopathology. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 14, 237–250.Google Scholar
Lim, L., Radua, J., & Rubia, K. (2014). Gray matter abnormalities in childhood maltreatment: A voxel-wise meta-analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 171, 854–863.Google Scholar
Maldjian, J. A., Laurienti, P. J., Kraft, R. A., & Burdette, J. H. (2003). An automated method for neuroanatomic and cytoarchitectonic atlas-based interrogation of fMRI data sets. NeuroImage, 19, 1233–1239.Google Scholar
Mansell, W., Clark, D. M., Ehlers, A., & Chen, Y.-P. (1999). Social anxiety and attention away from emotional faces. Cognition & Emotion, 13, 673–690.Google Scholar
Marusak, H. A., Martin, K. R., Etkin, A., & Thomason, M. E. (2014). Childhood trauma exposure disrupts the automatic regulation of emotional processing. Neuropsychopharmacology, 40, 1250–1258.Google Scholar
Masten, A. S., Hubbard, J. J., Gest, S. D., Tellegen, A., Garmezy, N., & Ramirez, M. (1999). Competence in the context of adversity: Pathways to resilience and maladaptation from childhood to late adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 143–169.Google Scholar
Masten, A. S., & Tellegen, A. (2012). Resilience in developmental psychopathology: Contributions of the Project Competence Longitudinal Study. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 345–361.Google Scholar
Masten, C. L., Guyer, A. E., Hodgdon, H. B., McClure, E. B., Charney, D. S., Ernst, M., et al. (2008). Recognition of facial emotions among maltreated children with high rates of post-traumatic stress disorder. Child Abuse and Neglect, 32, 139–153.Google Scholar
Mathews, A., & Sebastian, S. (1993). Suppression of emotional Stroop effects by fear-arousal. Cognition & Emotion, 7, 517–530.Google Scholar
Maughan, A., & Cicchetti, D. (2002). Impact of child maltreatment and interadult violence on children's emotion regulation abilities and socioemotional adjustment. Child Development, 73, 1525–1542.Google Scholar
McCrory, E. J., De Brito, S. A., Kelly, P. A., Bird, G., Sebastian, C. L., Mechelli, A., et al. (2013). Amygdala activation in maltreated children during pre-attentive emotional processing. British Journal of Psychiatry, 202, 269–276.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCrory, E. J., De Brito, S. A., Sebastian, C. L., Mechelli, A., Bird, G., Kelly, P. A., et al. (2011). Heightened neural reactivity to threat in child victims of family violence. Current Biology, 21, R947–R948.Google Scholar
McCrory, E. J., De Brito, S. A., & Viding, E. (2010). Research Review: The neurobiology and genetics of maltreatment and adversity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 51, 1079–1095.Google Scholar
McCrory, E. J., & Viding, E. (2015). The theory of latent vulnerability: Reconceptualizing the link between childhood maltreatment and psychiatric disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 27, 493–505.Google Scholar
McGloin, J. M., & Widom, C. S. (2001). Resilience among abused and neglected children grown up. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 1021–1038.Google Scholar
McLaughlin, K. A., Kubzansky, L. D., Dunn, E. C., Waldinger, R., Vaillant, G., & Koenen, K. C. (2010). Childhood social environment, emotional reactivity to stress, and mood and anxiety disorders across the life course. Depression and Anxiety, 27, 1087–1094.Google Scholar
McLewin, L. A., & Muller, R. T. (2006). Attachment and social support in the prediction of psychopathology among young adults with and without a history of physical maltreatment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 30, 171–191.Google Scholar
Mehta, M. A., Golembo, N. I., Nosarti, C., Colvert, E., Mota, A., Williams, S. C., et al. (2009). Amygdala, hippocampal and corpus callosum size following severe early institutional deprivation: The English and Romanian Adoptees study pilot. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 943–951.Google Scholar
Mesman, J., Bongers, I. L., & Koot, H. M. (2001). Preschool developmental pathways to preadolescent internalizing and externalizing problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 679–689.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (1999). Some methodological issues in assessing attentional biases for threatening faces in anxiety: A replication study using a modified version of the probe detection task. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 595–604.Google Scholar
Monk, C. S., Nelson, E. E., McClure, E. B., Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., Leibenluft, E., et al. (2006). Ventrolateral prefrontal cortex activation and attentional bias in response to angry faces in adolescents with generalized anxiety disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 1091–1097.Google Scholar
Nanni, V., Uher, R., & Danese, A. (2012). Childhood maltreatment predicts unfavorable course of illness and treatment outcome in depression: A meta-analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 141–151.Google Scholar
Ochsner, K. N., & Gross, J. J. (2005). The cognitive control of emotion. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9, 242–249.Google Scholar
Office for National Statistics. (2005). The National Statistics Socio-economic Classification user manual. Norwich: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Onnis, R., Dadds, M. R., & Bryant, R. A. (2011). Is there a mutual relationship between opposite attentional biases underlying anxiety? Emotion, 11, 582.Google Scholar
Peckham, A. D., McHugh, R. K., & Otto, M. W. (2010). A meta-analysis of the magnitude of biased attention in depression. Depression and Anxiety, 27, 1135–1142.Google Scholar
Peper, J. S., Brouwer, R. M., Schnack, H. G., van Baal, G. C., van Leeuwen, M., van den Berg, S. M., et al. (2009). Sex steroids and brain structure in pubertal boys and girls. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 332–342.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pepin, E. N., & Banyard, V. L. (2006). Social support: A mediator between child maltreatment and developmental outcomes. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35, 617–630.Google Scholar
Petersen, A. C., Crockett, L., Richards, M., & Boxer, A. (1988). A self-report measure of pubertal status: Reliability, validity, and initial norms. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 17, 117–133.Google Scholar
Pfabigan, D. M., Lamplmayr-Kragl, E., Pintzinger, N. M., Sailer, U., & Tran, U. S. (2014). Sex differences in event-related potentials and attentional biases to emotional facial stimuli. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1477.Google Scholar
Piefke, M., Weiss, P. H., Markowitsch, H. J., & Fink, G. R. (2005). Gender differences in the functional neuroanatomy of emotional episodic autobiographical memory. Human Brain Mapping, 24, 313–324.Google Scholar
Piko, B. F., Luszczynska, A., & Fitzpatrick, K. M. (2013). Social inequalities in adolescent depression: The role of parental social support and optimism. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 59, 474–481.Google Scholar
Pine, D. S., Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., Montgomery, L., Monk, C. S., McClure, E., et al. (2005). Attention bias to threat in maltreated children: Implications for vulnerability to stress-related psychopathology. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 291–296.Google Scholar
Pollak, S. D. (2008). Mechanisms linking early experience and the emergence of emotions: Illustrations from the study of maltreated children. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 370–375.Google Scholar
Pollak, S. D., Cicchetti, D., Hornung, K., & Reed, A. (2000). Recognizing emotion in faces: Developmental effects of child abuse and neglect. Developmental Psychology, 36, 679.Google Scholar
Pollak, S. D., Cicchetti, D., Klorman, R., & Brumaghim, J. T. (1997). Cognitive brain event-related potentials and emotion processing in maltreated children. Child Development, 68, 773–787.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pollak, S. D., Klorman, R., Thatcher, J. E., & Cicchetti, D. (2001). P3b reflects maltreated children's reactions to facial displays of emotion. Psychophysiology, 38, 267–274.Google Scholar
Pollak, S. D., & Sinha, P. (2002). Effects of early experience on children's recognition of facial displays of emotion. Developmental Psychology, 38, 784.Google Scholar
Pollak, S. D., & Tolley-Schell, S. A. (2003). Selective attention to facial emotion in physically abused children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112, 323–338.Google Scholar
Prince-Embury, S. (2008). The resiliency scales for children and adolescents, psychological symptoms, and clinical status in adolescents. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 23, 41–56.Google Scholar
Rachman, S. J. (2004). Anxiety (2nd ed.). New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
R Development Core Team. (2013). A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Retrieved from http://www.R-project.org Google Scholar
Rempel-Clower, N. L. (2007). Orbitofrontal cortex connections supporting a role in emotion. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1121, 72–86.Google Scholar
Rieder, C., & Cicchetti, D. (1989). Organizational perspective on cognitive control functioning and cognitive–affective balance in maltreated children. Developmental Psychology, 25, 382.Google Scholar
Rogosch, F. A., Cicchetti, D., & Aber, J. L. (1995). The role of child maltreatment in early deviations in cognitive and affective processing abilities and later peer relationship problems. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 591–609.Google Scholar
Romens, S. E., & Pollak, S. D. (2012). Emotion regulation predicts attention bias in maltreated children at risk for depression. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 120–127.Google Scholar
Rosseel, Y. (2012). lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48, 1–36.Google Scholar
Rushworth, M., Behrens, T., Rudebeck, P., & Walton, M. (2007). Contrasting roles for cingulate and orbitofrontal cortex in decisions and social behaviour. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11, 168–176.Google Scholar
Schoenbaum, G., Saddoris, M. P., & Stalnaker, T. A. (2007). Reconciling the roles of orbitofrontal cortex in reversal learning and the encoding of outcome expectancies. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1121, 320–335.Google Scholar
Schönfeld, S., Ehlers, A., Böllinghaus, I., & Rief, W. (2007). Overgeneral memory and suppression of trauma memories in post-traumatic stress disorder. Memory, 15, 339–352.Google Scholar
Scott, K. M., Smith, D. R., & Ellis, P. M. (2010). Prospectively ascertained child maltreatment and its association with DSM-IV mental disorders in young adults. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67, 712–719.Google Scholar
Shackman, J. E., Shackman, A. J., & Pollak, S. D. (2007). Physical abuse amplifies attention to threat and increases anxiety in children. Emotion, 7, 838–852.Google Scholar
Shaw, P., Malek, M., Watson, B., Greenstein, D., de Rossi, P., & Sharp, W. (2013). Trajectories of cerebral cortical development in childhood and adolescence and adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 74, 599–606.Google Scholar
Shechner, T., Britton, J. C., Pérez-Edgar, K., Bar-Haim, Y., Ernst, M., & Fox, N. A., et al. (2012). Attention biases, anxiety, and development: Toward or away from threats or rewards? Depression and Anxiety, 29, 282–294.Google Scholar
Shields, A., & Cicchetti, D. (1998). Reactive aggression among maltreated children: The contributions of attention and emotion dysregulation. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, 381–395.Google Scholar
Shields, A. M., Cicchetti, D., & Ryan, R. M. (1994). The development of emotional and behavioral self-regulation and social competence among maltreated school-age children. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 57.Google Scholar
Silani, G., Lamm, C., Ruff, C. C., & Singer, T. (2013). Right supramarginal gyrus is crucial to overcome emotional egocentricity bias in social judgments. Journal of Neuroscience, 33, 15466–15476.Google Scholar
Singer, T., & Lamm, C. (2009). The social neuroscience of empathy. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1156, 81–96.Google Scholar
Southwick, S. M., Vythilingam, M., & Charney, D. S. (2005). The psychobiology of depression and resilience to stress: Implications for prevention and treatment Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 255–291.Google Scholar
Spear, L. P. (2009). Heightened stress responsivity and emotional reactivity during pubertal maturation: Implications for psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 87–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Squire, L. R., Stark, C. E. L., & Clark, R. E. (2004). The medial temporal lobe Annual Review of Neuroscience, 27, 279–306.Google Scholar
Stronach, E. P., Toth, S. L., Rogosch, F., & Cicchetti, D. (2013). Preventive interventions and sustained attachment security in maltreated children. Development and Psychopathology, 25(4, Part 1), 919–930.Google Scholar
Swartz, J. R., Knodt, A. R., Radtke, S. R., & Hariri, A. R. (2015). A neural biomarker of psychological vulnerability to future life stress. Neuron, 85, 505–511.Google Scholar
Teicher, M. H., & Samson, J. A. (2013). Childhood maltreatment and psychopathology: A case for ecophenotypic variants as clinically and neurobiologically distinct subtypes. American Journal of Psychiatry, 170, 1114–1133.Google Scholar
Telzer, E. H., Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., Mai, X., Ernst, M., Pine, D. S., et al. (2008). Relationship between trait anxiety, prefrontal cortex, and attention bias to angry faces in children and adolescents. Biological Psychology, 79, 216–222.Google Scholar
Thomas, K. M., Drevets, W. C., Whalen, P. J., Eccard, C. H., Dahl, R. E., Ryan, N. D., et al. (2001). Amygdala response to facial expressions in children and adults. Biological Psychiatry, 49, 309–316.Google Scholar
Thompson, M. P., Kingree, J. B., & Desai, S. (2004). Gender differences in long-term health consequences of physical abuse of children: Data from a nationally representative survey. American Journal of Public Health, 94, 599–604.Google Scholar
Toth, S. L., & Cicchetti, D. (1996). Patterns of relatedness, depressive symptomatology, and perceived competence in maltreated children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 32.Google Scholar
Tottenham, N., Hare, T. A., Quinn, B. T., McCarry, T. W., Nurse, M., Gilhooly, T., et al. (2010). Prolonged institutional rearing is associated with atypically large amygdala volume and difficulties in emotion regulation. Developmental Science, 13, 46–61.Google Scholar
Tottenham, N., Tanaka, J. W., Leon, A. C., McCarry, T., Nurse, M., Hare, T. A., et al. (2009). The NimStim set of facial expressions: Judgments from untrained research participants. Psychiatry Research, 168, 242–249.Google Scholar
Valentino, K., Toth, S. L., & Cicchetti, D. (2009). Autobiographical memory functioning among abused, neglected, and nonmaltreated children: The overgeneral memory effect. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 1029–1038.Google Scholar
Wald, I., Degnan, K. A., Gorodetsky, E., Charney, D. S., Fox, N. A., Fruchter, E., et al. (2013). Attention to threats and combat-related posttraumatic stress symptoms: Prospective associations and moderation by the serotonin transporter gene. JAMA Psychiatry, 70, 401–408.Google Scholar
Wald, I., Shechner, T., Bitton, S., Holoshitz, Y., Charney, D., Muller, D., et al. (2011). Attention bias away from threat during life threatening danger predicts PTSD symptoms at one-year follow-up. Depression and Anxiety, 28, 406–411.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1999). Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Whittle, S., Dennison, M., Vijayakumar, N., Simmons, J. G., Yücel, M., Lubman, D. I., et al. (2013). Childhood maltreatment and psychopathology affect brain development during adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 52, 940–952.Google Scholar
Williams, J. M. G., Barnhofer, T., Crane, C., Herman, D., Raes, F., Watkins, E., et al. (2007). Autobiographical memory specificity and emotional disorder. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 122.Google Scholar