Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-gb8f7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-01T04:31:34.121Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A Preliminary, Randomized-Controlled Trial of Mindfulness and Game-Based Executive Function Trainings to Promote Self-Regulation in Internationally-Adopted Children

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  30 January 2019

Jamie M. Lawler Open the ORCID record for Jamie M. Lawler [Opens in a new window] ,
Elisa A. Esposito ,
Colleen M. Doyle  and
Megan R. Gunnar
Jamie M. Lawler*
Affiliation:
Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, MI, USA
Elisa A. Esposito
Affiliation:
Widener University, Chester, PA, USA
Colleen M. Doyle
Affiliation:
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
Megan R. Gunnar
Affiliation:
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
*
Author for correspondence: Jamie Lawler, Eastern Michigan University, 341 Science Complex, Ypsilanti, MI 48197; E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Although many children adopted internationally show remarkable recovery once placed in families, as a group they continue to exhibit persisting developmental deficits and delays in self-regulation. The current study uses a stratified, randomized, controlled trial to evaluate the effects of mindfulness-based and executive function trainings (EFTs) on internationally adopted (IA) children's self-regulation, including effortful/inhibitory control, attention, delay of gratification, and emotion-regulation. IA children ages 6–10 years were randomized into mindfulness training (MT), EFT, or no intervention (NI) groups. The MT and EFT groups attended 12 one-hour group sessions. Ninety-six children (MT, n = 33; EFT, n = 32; NI, n = 31) completed the study and were tested on computerized and non-computerized measures of self-regulation. Compared with the NI group, the MT group improved delay of gratification, and the EFT group improved inhibitory control and selective attention. There was no effect of either intervention on emotion regulation. MTs and EFTs show promise for improving self-regulation in IA children.

Keywords

adoptionattentionexecutive functionmindfulnessself-regulation
Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 31 , Issue 4 , October 2019 , pp. 1513 - 1525
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2019 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Arias, A. J., Steinberg, K., Banga, A., & Trestman, R.L. (2006). Systematic review of the efficacy of meditation techniques as treatments for medical illness. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 12(8), 817–832. doi:10.1089/acm.2006.12.817Google Scholar
Baer, R. A. (2003). Mindfulness training as a clinical intervention: A conceptual and empirical review. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10(2), 125–143. doi:10.1093/clipsy/bpg015Google Scholar
Baumeister, R. F., & Vohs, K. D. (2003). Self-regulation and the executive function of the self. In Leary, M. & Tangney, J. (Eds.), Handbook of Self and Identity (pp. 197–217). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Berger, A. (2011). Self-regulation: Brain, cognition, and development. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Black, D. S., Milam, J., & Sussman, S. (2009). Sitting-meditation interventions among youth: A review of treatment efficacy. Pediatrics, 124(3), e532–e541.Google Scholar
Blair, C. (2002). School readiness: Integrating cognition and emotion in a neurobiological conceptualization of children's functioning at school entry. American Psychologist, 57(2), 111–127. doi:10.1037//0003-066X.57.2.111Google Scholar
Blair, C. (2010). Stress and the development of self-regulation in context. Child Development Perspectives, 4(3), 181–188. doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2010.00145.xGoogle Scholar
Brock, L. L., Rimm-Kaufman, S. E., Nathanson, L., & Grimm, K. J. (2009). The contributions of “hot” and “cool” executive function to children's academic achievement, learning-related behaviors, and engagement in kindergarten. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 24(3), 337–349.Google Scholar
Bruce, J., Tarullo, A. R., & Gunnar, M. R. (2009). Disinhibited social behavior among internationally adopted children. Development and Psychopathology, 21(1), 157–171. doi: S0954579409000108 [pii]10.1017/S0954579409000108Google Scholar
Carlson, S. M. (2005). Developmentally sensitive measures of executive function in preschool children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 28(2), 595–616. doi:10.1207/s15326942dn2802_3Google Scholar
Carlson, L. E., Speca, M., Faris, P., & Patel, K. D. (2007). One year pre-post intervention follow-up of psychological, immune, endocrine and blood pressure outcomes of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) in breast and prostate cancer outpatients. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 21(8), 1038–1049. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2007.04.002Google Scholar
Casey, E. C., Finsaas, M., Carlson, S. M., Zelazo, P. D., Murphy, B., Durkin, F., … Masten, A. S. (2014). Promoting resilience through executive function training for homeless and highly mobile preschoolers. In Resilience Interventions for Youth in Diverse Populations (pp. 133–158). New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Chugani, H. T., Behen, M. E., Muzik, O., Juhász, C., Nagy, F., & Chugani, D. C. (2001). Local brain functional activity following early deprivation: A study of postinstitutionalized Romanian orphans. Neuroimage, 14(6), 1290–1301.Google Scholar
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155.Google Scholar
Cole, P. M., Martin, S. E., & Dennis, T. A. (2004). Emotion regulation as a scientific construct: Methodological challenges and directions for child development research. Child Development, 75(2), 317–333.Google Scholar
Cousineau, D., & Chartier, S. (2010). Outliers detection and treatment: A review. International Journal of Psychological Research, 3(1), 58–67.Google Scholar
Davidson, R. J., Kabat-Zinn, J., Schumacher, J., Rosenkranz, M., Muller, D … & Sheridan, J. F. (2003). Alterations in brain and immune function produced by mindfulness meditation. Psychosomatic Medicine, 65(4), 564–570.Google Scholar
Dennis, T. A., Brotman, L. M., Huang, K. Y., & Gouley, K. K. (2007). Effortful control, social competence, and adjustment problems in children at risk for psychopathology. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 36(3), 442–454.Google Scholar
Diamond, A. (2012). Activities and programs that improve children's executive functions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21(5), 335–341. doi:10.1177/0963721412453722Google Scholar
Diamond, A. (2013). Discussant. In Zelazo, P. D. (Chair), Executive Function: Basic Science to Intervention. Symposium conducted at the meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Seattle, WA.Google Scholar
Dias, N. M., & Seabra, A. G. (2017). Intervention for executive functions development in early elementary school children: Effects on learning and behaviour, and follow-up maintenance. Educational Psychology, 37(4), 468–486.Google Scholar
Dongen-Boomsma, M., Vollebregt, M. A., Buitelaar, J. K., & Slaats-Willemse, D. (2014). Working memory training in young children with ADHD: A randomized placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55(8), 886–896.Google Scholar
Du, Y., Kou, J., & Coghill, D. (2008). The validity, reliability and normative scores of the parent, teacher and self report versions of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire in China. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 2, 8.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Hofer, C., & Vaughan, J. (2007). Effortful control and its socioemotional consequences. In Gross, J. J. (Ed.), Handbook of Emotion Regulation (pp. 287–306). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Esposito, E. A., & Gunnar, M. R. (2014). Early deprivation and developmental psychopathology. In Handbook of Developmental Psychopathology (pp. 371–388). Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Esposito, E. A., Lawler, J. M., Doyle, C. D., & Gunnar, M. R. (in preparation). Differential effects of mindfulness and executive function training in internationally adopted children.Google Scholar
Essex, M. J., Boyce, W. T., Goldstein, L. H., Armstrong, J. M., Kraemer, H. C., & Kupfer, D. J. (2002). The confluence of mental, physical, social, and academic difficulties in middle childhood. II: Developing the MacArthur Health and Behavior Questionnaire. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(5), 588–603.Google Scholar
Eluvathingal, T. J., Chugani, H. T., Behen, M. E., Juhász, C., Muzik, O., Maqbool, M., … Makki, M. (2006). Abnormal brain connectivity in children after early severe socioemotional deprivation: a diffusion tensor imaging study. Pediatrics, 117(6), 2093–2100.Google Scholar
Flook, L., Goldberg, S. B., Pinger, L., & Davidson, R.J. (2015). Promoting prosocial behavior and self-regulatory skills in preschool children through a mindfulness-based kindness curriculum. Developmental Psychology, 51(1), 44.Google Scholar
Flook, L., Smalley, S. L., Kitil, M. J., Galla, B. M., Kaiser-Greenland, S … & Kasari, C. (2010). Effects of mindful awareness practices on executive functions in elementary school children. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 26(1), 70–95.Google Scholar
Gagne, J. R., Saudino, K. J., & Asherson, P. (2011). The genetic etiology of inhibitory control and behavior problems at 24 months of age. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(11), 1155–1163.Google Scholar
Goodman, R. (1997) “The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: A Research Note.” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38, 581–586.Google Scholar
Greenberg, M. T., & Harris, A. R. (2012). Nurturing mindfulness in children and youth: Current state of research. Child Development Perspectives, 6(2), 161–166. doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2011.00215.xGoogle Scholar
Harris, E. A. (2015, October 23). Under stress, students in New York schools find calm in meditation. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/24/nyregion/under-stress-students-in-new-york-schools-find-calm-in-meditation.html?_r=0Google Scholar
Healey, D. M., & Halperin, J. M. (2015). Enhancing neurobehavioral gains with the aid of games and exercise (ENGAGE): Initial open trial of a novel early intervention fostering the development of preschoolers’ self-regulation. Child Neuropsychology, 21(4), 465–480.Google Scholar
Hellerstedt, W. L., Madsen, N. J., Gunnar, M. R., Grotevant, H. D., Lee, R. M., & Johnson, D. E. (2008). The International Adoption Project: Population-based surveillance of Minnesota parents who adopted children internationally. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 12(2), 162–171.Google Scholar
Johnson, A., Forsten, J., Gunnar, M. R., & Zelazo, P. D., (2011). A randomized controlled trial of mindfulness meditation training in preschool children. Poster presented to the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development.Google Scholar
Johnson, A. E., Lyons, K., & Zelazo, P. D. (March, 2013). Benefits of mindfulness training in early childhood. Paper presented to the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development.Google Scholar
Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10(2), 144–156. doi:10.1093/clipsy/bpg016Google Scholar
Kallapiran, K., Koo, S., Kirubakaran, R., & Hancock, K. (2015). Review: Effectiveness of mindfulness in improving mental health symptoms of children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 20(4), 182–194.Google Scholar
Klingbeil, D. A., Renshaw, T. L., Willenbrink, J. B., Copek, R. A., Chan, K. T., Haddock, A., … Clifton, J. (2017). Mindfulness-based interventions with youth: A comprehensive meta-analysis of group-design studies. Journal of School Psychology, 63, 77–103.Google Scholar
Klingberg, T., Fernell, E., Olesen, P. J., Johnson, M., Gustafsson, P., Dahlström, K., … Westerberg, H. (2005). Computerized training of working memory in children with ADHD-a randomized, controlled trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 44(2), 177–186.Google Scholar
Kochanska, G., Murray, K., Jacques, T. Y., Koenig, A. L., & Vandegeest, K. A. (1996). Inhibitory control in young children and its role in emerging internalization. Child Development, 67(2), 490–507.Google Scholar
Lawler, J. M., Esposito, E. A., Doyle, C., Johnson, A., & Gunnar, M. R. (2013, April) The effects of mindfulness and executive function skills trainings on post-institutionalized children. In Mindfulness in children: The effects of training studies in low- and high-risk samples. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Seattle, WA.Google Scholar
Lewis, M. D., Lamm, C., Segalowitz, S. J., Stieben, J., & Zelazo, P. D. (2006). Neurophysiological correlates of emotion-regulation in children and adolescents. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 18(3), 430–443. doi:10.1162/089892906775990633Google Scholar
Lillard, A., & Else-Quest, N. (2006). The early years: Evaluating Montessori education. Science, 313(5795), 1893–1894.Google Scholar
Loman, M. M., Johnson, A. E., Westerlund, A., Pollak, S. D., Nelson, C. A., & Gunnar, M. R. (2013). The effect of early deprivation on executive attention in middle childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(1), 37–45.Google Scholar
Mak, C., Whittingham, K., Cunnington, R., & Boyd, R. N. (2017). Efficacy of mindfulness-based interventions for attention and executive function in children and adolescents—A systematic review. Mindfulness, 9(1), 59–78.Google Scholar
Mackey, A. P., Park, A. T., Robinson, S. T., & Gabrieli, J. D. (2017). A pilot study of classroom-based cognitive skill instruction: Effects on cognition and academic performance. Mind, Brain, and Education, 11(2), 85–95.Google Scholar
McDermott, J. M., Perez-Edgar, K., & Fox, N.A. (2007). Variations of the flanker paradigm: Assessing selective attention in young children. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 62–70.Google Scholar
Miller, M., Nevado-Montenegro, A. J., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2012). Childhood executive function continues to predict outcomes in young adult females with and without childhood-diagnosed ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40(5), 657–668.Google Scholar
Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., & Rodriguez, M. L. (1989). Delay of gratification in children. Science, 244, 933–938.Google Scholar
Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault, L., Belsky, D., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H… Caspi, A. (2011). A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(7), 2693–2698. doi:10.1073/pnas.1010076108Google Scholar
Morgan, A. B., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (2000). A meta-analytic review of the relation between antisocial behavior and neuropsychological measures of executive function. Clinical Psychology Review, 20(1), 113–136.Google Scholar
Muris, P., Meesters, C., & van den Berg, F. (2003). The strengths and difficulties questionnaire (SDQ). European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 12(1), 1–8.Google Scholar
Murray, K. T., & Kochanska, G. (2002). Effortful control: Factor structure and relation to externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30(5), 503–514.Google Scholar
Napoli, M., Krech, P. R., & Holley, L. C. (2005). Mindfulness training for elementary school students: The attention academy. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 21(1), 99–125.Google Scholar
Nigg, J. T. (2017). Annual Research Review: On the relations among self-regulation, self-control, executive functioning, effortful control, cognitive control, impulsivity, risk-taking, and inhibition for developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 58(4), 361–383.Google Scholar
Ortner, C. N., Kilner, S. J., & Zelazo, P. D. (2007). Mindfulness meditation and reduced emotional interference on a cognitive task. Motivation and Emotion, 31(4), 271–283.Google Scholar
Prinzmetal, W., McCool, C., & Park, S. (2005). Attention: reaction time and accuracy reveal different mechanisms. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 134(1), 73.Google Scholar
Rapport, M. D., Orban, S., Kofler, M. J., & Friedman, L. M. (2013). Do programs designed to train working memory, other executive functions, and attention benefit children with ADHD? A meta-analytic review of cognitive, academic, and behavioral outcomes. Clinical Psychology Review, 33(8), 1237–1252. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2013.08.005Google Scholar
Raver, C. C., Jones, S. M., Li-Grining, C., Zhai, F., Bub, K., & Pressler, E. (2011). CSRP's impact on low-income preschoolers’ preacademic skills: Self-regulation as a mediating mechanism. Child Development, 82(1), 362–378.Google Scholar
Riggs, N. R., Jahromi, L. B., Razza, R. P., Dillworth-Bart, J. E., & Mueller, U. (2006). Executive function and the promotion of social-emotional competence. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 27(4), 300–309.Google Scholar
Rutter, M., Sonuga-Barke, E. J., Becket, C., Castle, J., Kreppner, J, … & Bell, C. A. (2010) Deprivation-specific psychological patterns: Effects of institutional deprivation. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 75(1), 1–252.Google Scholar
Rybanska, V., McKay, R., Jong, J., & Whitehouse, H. (2017). Rituals improve children's ability to delay gratification. Child Development, 89(2), 349–359. doi:10.1111/cdev.12762Google Scholar
Schmitt, S. A., McClelland, M. M., Tominey, S. L., & Acock, A. C. (2015). Strengthening school readiness for Head Start children: Evaluation of a self-regulation intervention. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 30, 20–31.Google Scholar
Schonert-Reichl, K. A., Oberle, E., Lawlor, M. S., Abbott, D., Thomson, K, Oberlander, T. F., & Diamond, A. (2015). Enhancing cognitive and social–emotional development through a simple-to-administer mindfulness-based school program for elementary school children: A randomized controlled trial. Developmental Psychology, 51(1), 52–66.Google Scholar
Semple, R. J., Lee, J., Rosa, D., & Miller, L. F. (2010). A randomized trial of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for children: Promoting mindful attention to enhance social-emotional resiliency in children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19(2), 218–229.Google Scholar
Solanto, M. V., Abikoff, H., Sonuga-Barke, E., Schachar, R., Logan, G. D., Wigal, T., … Turkel, E. (2001). The ecological validity of delay aversion and response inhibition as measures of impulsivity in AD/HD: A supplement to the NIMH multimodal treatment study of AD/HD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29(3), 215–228.Google Scholar
Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Taylor, E., Sembi, S., & Smith, J. (1992). Hyperactivity and delay aversion—I. The effect of delay on choice. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 33(2), 387–398.Google Scholar
Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., Gaertner, B., Popp, P. T., Smith, C. L., Kupfer, A., … & Hofer, C. (2007). Relations of maternal socialization and toddlers' effortful control to children's adjustment and social competence. Developmental Psychology, 43(5), 1170.Google Scholar
Stieben, J., Lewis, M. D., Granic, I., Zelazo, P. D., Segalowitz, S., & Pepler, D. (2007). Neurophysiological mechanisms of emotion regulation for subtypes of externalizing children. Development and Psychopathology, 19(2), 455–480.Google Scholar
Tamm, L., & Nakonezny, P. A. (2015). Metacognitive executive function training for young children with ADHD: A proof-of-concept study. ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders, 7(3), 183–190.Google Scholar
Tominey, S. L., & McClelland, M. M. (2011). Red light, purple light: Findings from a randomized trial using circle time games to improve behavioral self-regulation in preschool. Early Education & Development, 22(3), 489–519.Google Scholar
Tottenham, N., Hare, T. A., Quinn, B. T., McCarry, T. W., Nurse, M…& Casey, B.J., (2010). Prolonged institutional rearing is associated with atypically large amygdala volume and difficulties in emotion-regulation. Developmental Science, 13(1), 46–61. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00852.xGoogle Scholar
Van Dam, N. T., van Vugt, M. K., Vago, D. R., Schmalzl, L., Saron, C. D., Olendzki, A., … Meyer, D. E. (2018). Mind the hype: A critical evaluation and prescriptive agenda for research on mindfulness and meditation. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13(1), 36–61.Google Scholar
Waters, L., Barsky, A., Ridd, A., & Allen, K. (2015). Contemplative education: A systematic, evidence-based review of the effect of meditation interventions in schools. Educational Psychology Review, 27(1), 103–134.Google Scholar
Wiik, K. L., Loman, M. M., Van Ryzin, M. J., Armstrong, J. M., Essex, M. J., Pollak, S. D., … Gunnar, M. R. (2011). Behavioral and emotional symptoms of post-institutionalized children in middle childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(1), 56–63. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02294.xGoogle Scholar
Zelazo, P. D., & Lyons, K. E. (2012). The potential benefits of mindfulness training in early childhood: A developmental social cognitive neuroscience perspective. Child Development Perspectives, 6(2), 154–160.Google Scholar
Zelazo, P. D., & Müller, U. (2002). Executive function in typical and atypical development. In Goswami, U. (Ed.), Blackwell Handbook of Childhood Cognitive Development (pp. 445–469). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.Google Scholar
Zenner, C., Herrnleben-Kurz, S., & Walach, H. (2014). Mindfulness-based interventions in schools-a systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 603–603. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00603Google Scholar
Zhou, Q., Chen, S. H., & Main, A. (2012). Commonalities and differences in the research on children's effortful control and executive function: A call for an integrated model of self-regulation. Child Development Perspectives, 6(2), 112–121.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Lawler et al. supplementary material

Lawler et al. supplementary material 1

Download Lawler et al. supplementary material(File)
File 16.5 KB
Supplementary material: File

Lawler et al. supplementary material

Lawler et al. supplementary material 2

Download Lawler et al. supplementary material(File)
File 14.2 KB
Supplementary material: File

Lawler et al. supplementary material

Lawler et al. supplementary material 3

Download Lawler et al. supplementary material(File)
File 19.8 KB