Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7czq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T23:39:58.288Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Positive and negative parenting in conduct disorder with high versus low levels of callous–unemotional traits

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 June 2020

Ruth Pauli Open the ORCID record for Ruth Pauli [Opens in a new window] ,
Peter Tino ,
Jack C. Rogers ,
Rosalind Baker ,
Roberta Clanton ,
Philippa Birch ,
Abigail Brown ,
Gemma Daniel ,
Lisandra Ferreira  and
Liam Grisley
...Show all authors
Ruth Pauli*
Affiliation:
Centre for Human Brain Health, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Peter Tino
Affiliation:
School of Computer Science, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Jack C. Rogers
Affiliation:
Centre for Human Brain Health, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK Institute for Mental Health, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Rosalind Baker
Affiliation:
Centre for Human Brain Health, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Roberta Clanton
Affiliation:
Centre for Human Brain Health, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Philippa Birch
Affiliation:
Centre for Human Brain Health, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Abigail Brown
Affiliation:
Centre for Human Brain Health, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Gemma Daniel
Affiliation:
Centre for Human Brain Health, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Lisandra Ferreira
Affiliation:
Centre for Human Brain Health, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Liam Grisley
Affiliation:
Centre for Human Brain Health, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Gregor Kohls
Affiliation:
Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany
Sarah Baumann
Affiliation:
Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany
Anka Bernhard
Affiliation:
Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
Anne Martinelli
Affiliation:
Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
Katharina Ackermann
Affiliation:
Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
Helen Lazaratou
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Foteini Tsiakoulia
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Panagiota Bali
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Helena Oldenhof
Affiliation:
Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
Lucres Jansen
Affiliation:
Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
Areti Smaragdi
Affiliation:
Child Development Institute, Toronto, Canada
Karen Gonzalez-Madruga
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
Miguel Angel Gonzalez-Torres
Affiliation:
Psychiatric Service, Basurto University Hospital, Bilbao, Spain
Maider Gonzalez de Artaza-Lavesa
Affiliation:
Psychiatric Service, Basurto University Hospital, Bilbao, Spain
Martin Steppan
Affiliation:
Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychiatric University Hospital, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
Noortje Vriends
Affiliation:
Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychiatric University Hospital, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
Aitana Bigorra
Affiliation:
University Hospital Mutua Terrassa, Barcelona, Spain
Reka Siklosi
Affiliation:
Faculty of Medicine, Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Department of the Child Health Center, Szeged University, Szeged, Hungary
Sreejita Ghosh
Affiliation:
Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Gronigen, the Netherlands
Kerstin Bunte
Affiliation:
Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Gronigen, the Netherlands
Roberta Dochnal
Affiliation:
Faculty of Medicine, Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Department of the Child Health Center, Szeged University, Szeged, Hungary
Amaia Hervas
Affiliation:
University Hospital Mutua Terrassa, Barcelona, Spain Global Institute of Neurodevelopment Integrated Care (IGAIN), Barcelona, Spain
Christina Stadler
Affiliation:
Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychiatric University Hospital, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
Aranzazu Fernandez-Rivas
Affiliation:
Psychiatric Service, Basurto University Hospital, Bilbao, Spain
Graeme Fairchild
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Bath, Bath, UK
Arne Popma
Affiliation:
Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
Dimitris Dikeos
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Kerstin Konrad
Affiliation:
Child Neuropsychology Section, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany. JARA-Brain Institute II, Molecular Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, RWTH Aachen & Research Centre Juelich, Juelich, Germany
Beate Herpertz-Dahlmann
Affiliation:
Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany
Christine M. Freitag
Affiliation:
Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
Pia Rotshtein
Affiliation:
Centre for Human Brain Health, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Stephane A. De Brito*
Affiliation:
Centre for Human Brain Health, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
*
Authors for correspondence: Stephane De Brito and Ruth Pauli, School of Psychology, Centre for Human Brain Health, University of Birmingham, BirminghamB15 2TT, UK; E-mail: [email protected] and [email protected].
Authors for correspondence: Stephane De Brito and Ruth Pauli, School of Psychology, Centre for Human Brain Health, University of Birmingham, BirminghamB15 2TT, UK; E-mail: [email protected] and [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Less is known about the relationship between conduct disorder (CD), callous–unemotional (CU) traits, and positive and negative parenting in youth compared to early childhood. We combined traditional univariate analyses with a novel machine learning classifier (Angle-based Generalized Matrix Learning Vector Quantization) to classify youth (N = 756; 9–18 years) into typically developing (TD) or CD groups with or without elevated CU traits (CD/HCU, CD/LCU, respectively) using youth- and parent-reports of parenting behavior. At the group level, both CD/HCU and CD/LCU were associated with high negative and low positive parenting relative to TD. However, only positive parenting differed between the CD/HCU and CD/LCU groups. In classification analyses, performance was best when distinguishing CD/HCU from TD groups and poorest when distinguishing CD/HCU from CD/LCU groups. Positive and negative parenting were both relevant when distinguishing CD/HCU from TD, negative parenting was most relevant when distinguishing between CD/LCU and TD, and positive parenting was most relevant when distinguishing CD/HCU from CD/LCU groups. These findings suggest that while positive parenting distinguishes between CD/HCU and CD/LCU, negative parenting is associated with both CD subtypes. These results highlight the importance of considering multiple parenting behaviors in CD with varying levels of CU traits in late childhood/adolescence.

Keywords

angle-based generalized matrix learning vector quantizationcallous–unemotional traitsconduct disordermachine learningparenting
Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 33 , Issue 3 , August 2021 , pp. 980 - 991
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental health disorders: DSM-IV-TR (4th ed., text revision). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental health disorders: DSM-5 (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Barker, E. D., Oliver, B. R., Viding, E., Salekin, R. T., & Maughan, B. (2011). The impact of prenatal maternal risk, fearless temperament and early parenting on adolescent callous-unemotional traits: A 14-year longitudinal investigation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 878–888. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02397.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belizario, G. O., Junior, R. G. B., Salvini, R., Lafer, B., & da Silva Dias, R. (2019). Predominant polarity classification and associated clinical variables in bipolar disorder: A machine learning approach. Journal of Affective Disorders, 245, 279–282. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2018.11.051CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, R. J. R. (2013). The neurobiology of psychopathic traits in youths. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 14, 786–799. doi:10.1038/nrn3577CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, R. J. R., Colledge, E., & Mitchell, D. G. V. (2001). Somatic markers and response reversal: Is there orbitofrontal cortex dysfunction in boys with psychopathic tendencies? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 499–511. doi:10.1023/A:1012277125119CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bunte, K., Baranowski, E. S., Arlt, W., & Tino, P. (2016). Relevance learning vector quantization in variable dimensional spaces. Paper presented at New Challenges in Neural Computation (NC 2), Workshop of the GI-Fachgruppe Neuronale Netze and the German Neural Networks Society in Connection to GCPR, Basel, Switzerland.Google Scholar
Cecil, C. A., McCrory, E. J., Barker, E. D., Guiney, J., & Viding, E. (2018). Characterising youth with callous–unemotional traits and concurrent anxiety: Evidence for a high-risk clinical group. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 885–898. doi:10.1007/s00787-017-1086-8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crum, K. I., Waschbusch, D. A., Bagner, D. M., & Coxe, S. (2015). Effects of callous–unemotional traits on the association between parenting and child conduct problems. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 46, 967–980. doi:10.1007/s10578-015-0535-1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dadds, M. R., & Salmon, K. (2003). Punishment insensitivity and parenting: Temperament and learning as interacting risks for antisocial behavior. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 6, 69–86. doi:10.1023/A:1023762009877CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Docherty, M., Boxer, P., Huesmann, L. R., O'Brien, M., & Bushman, B. (2017). Assessing callous-unemotional traits in adolescents: Determining cutoff scores for the inventory of callous and unemotional traits. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 73, 257–278. doi:10.1002/jclp.22313CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Edens, J. F., Skopp, N. A., & Cahill, M. A. (2008). Psychopathic features moderate the relationship between harsh and inconsistent parental discipline and adolescent antisocial behavior. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 37, 472–476. doi:10.1080/15374410801955938CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elizur, Y., & Somech, L. Y. (2018). Callous-unemotional traits and effortful control mediate the effect of parenting intervention on preschool conduct problems. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 46, 1631–1642. doi:10.1007/s10802-018-0412-zCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Enebrink, P., Andershed, H., & Långström, N. (2005). Callous–unemotional traits are associated with clinical severity in referred boys with conduct problems. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 59, 431–440. doi:10.1080/08039480500360690CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Essau, C. A., Sasagawa, S., & Frick, P. J. (2006a). Psychometric properties of the Alabama parenting questionnaire. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 15, 595–614. doi:10.1007/s10826-006-9036-yCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Essau, C. A., Sasagawa, S., & Frick, P. J. (2006b). Callous-unemotional traits in a community sample of adolescents. Assessment, 13, 454–469. doi:10.1177/1073191106287354CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Falk, A. E., & Lee, S. S. (2012). Parenting behavior and conduct problems in children with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): Moderation by callous-unemotional traits. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 34, 172–181. doi:10.1007/s10862-011-9268-zCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flom, M., White, D., Ganiban, J., & Saudino, K. J. (2019). Longitudinal links between callous-unemotional behaviors and parenting in early childhood: A genetically informed design. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. Advance online publication. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2019.03.013Google ScholarPubMed
Fontaine, N. M., McCrory, E. J., Boivin, M., Moffitt, T. E., & Viding, E. (2011). Predictors and outcomes of joint trajectories of callous–unemotional traits and conduct problems in childhood. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 120, 730–742. doi:10.1037/a0022620CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fontaine, N. M., Rijsdijk, F. V., McCrory, E. J., & Viding, E. (2010). Etiology of different developmental trajectories of callous-unemotional traits. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 656–664. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2010.03.014Google ScholarPubMed
Fouad, S., & Tino, P. (2012). Adaptive metric learning vector quantization for ordinal classification. Neural Computation, 24, 2825. doi:10.1162/NECO_a_00358CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freitag, C. M., Konrad, K., Stadler, C., De Brito, S. A., Popma, A., Herpertz, S. C., . . . Fairchild, G. (2018). Conduct disorder in adolescent females: Current state of research and study design of the FemNAT-CD consortium. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 1077–1093. doi:10.1007/s00787-018-1172-6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frick, P. J. (2019). LSU Psychology: ICU. Retrieved from https://sites01.lsu.edu/faculty/pfricklab/icu/Google Scholar
Frick, P. J., Stickle, T. R., Dandreaux, D. M., Farrell, J. M., & Kimonis, E. R. (2005). Callous–unemotional traits in predicting the severity and stability of conduct problems and delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 471–487. doi:10.1007/s10648-005-5728-9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hawes, D. J., Dadds, M. R., Frost, A. D., & Hasking, P. A. (2011). Do childhood callous-unemotional traits drive change in parenting practices? Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 40, 507–518. doi:10.1080/15374416.2011.581624CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henry, J., Dionne, G., Viding, E., Vitaro, F., Brendgen, M., Tremblay, R. E., & Boivin, M. (2018). Early warm-rewarding parenting moderates the genetic contributions to callous–unemotional traits in childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 59, 1282–1288. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12918CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hyde, L. W., Waller, R., Trentacosta, C. J., Shaw, D. S., Neiderhiser, J. M., Ganiban, J. M., . . . Leve, L. D. (2016). Heritable and nonheritable pathways to early callous-unemotional behaviors. American Journal of Psychiatry, 173, 903–910. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.15111381CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
International Labour Organization. (2012). International Standard Classification of Occupations. Structure, group definitions and correspondence tables. Geneva: International Labour Office.Google Scholar
Kaufman, J., Birmaher, B., Brent, D., Rao, U. M. A., Flynn, C., Moreci, P., . . . Ryan, N. (1997). Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children—Present and Lifetime Version (K-SADS-PL): Initial reliability and validity data. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 980–988. doi:10.1097/00004583-199707000-00021CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kersten, L., Vriends, N., Steppan, M., Raschle, N. M., Praetzlich, M., Oldenhof, H., . . . Martinelli, A. (2017). Community violence exposure and conduct problems in children and adolescents with conduct disorder and healthy controls. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 11, 219. doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2017.00219CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kochanska, G., Forman, D. R., Aksan, N., & Dunbar, S. B. (2005). Pathways to conscience: Early mother–child mutually responsive orientation and children's moral emotion, conduct, and cognition. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 19–34. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00348.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Larsson, H., Viding, E., & Plomin, R. (2008). Callous–unemotional traits and antisocial behavior: Genetic, environmental, and early parenting characteristics. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35, 197–211. doi:10.1177/0093854807310225CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Molinuevo, B., Pardo, Y., & Torrubia, R. (2011). Psychometric analysis of the Catalan version of the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire (APQ) in a community sample. Spanish Journal of Psychology, 14, 944–955. doi:10.5209/rev_SJOP.2011.v14.n2.40CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, A. A., Blair, R. J., Hettema, J. M., & Roberson-Nay, R. (2019). The genetic underpinnings of callous-unemotional traits: A systematic research review. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 100, 85–97. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.02.018CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muñoz, L. C., Pakalniskiene, V., & Frick, P. J. (2011). Parental monitoring and youth behavior problems: Moderation by callous-unemotional traits over time. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 20, 261–269. doi: 10.1007/s00787-011-0172-6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muratori, P., Lochman, J. E., Lai, E., Milone, A., Nocentini, A., Pisano, S., . . . Masi, G. (2016). Which dimension of parenting predicts the change of callous unemotional traits in children with disruptive behavior disorder? Comprehensive Psychiatry, 69, 202–210. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2016.06.002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oxford, M., Cavell, T. A., & Hughes, J. N. (2003). Callous/unemotional traits moderate the relation between ineffective parenting and child externalizing problems: A partial replication and extension. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 577–585. doi:10.1207/S15374424JCCP3204_10CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pardini, D. A., Lochman, J. E., & Powell, N. (2007). The development of callous-unemotional traits and antisocial behavior in children: Are there shared and/or unique predictors? Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 36, 319–333. doi:10.1080/15374410701444215CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pasalich, D. S., Dadds, M. R., Hawes, D. J., & Brennan, J. (2011). Do callous-unemotional traits moderate the relative importance of parental coercion versus warmth in child conduct problems? An observational study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 1308–1315. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02435.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Petersen, A. C., Crockett, L., Richards, M., & Boxer, A. (1988). A self-report measure of pubertal status: Reliability, validity, and initial norms. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 17, 117–133. doi:10.1007/BF01537962CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pisano, S., Muratori, P., Gorga, C., Levantini, V., Iuliano, R., Catone, G., . . . Masi, G. (2017). Conduct disorders and psychopathy in children and adolescents: Aetiology, clinical presentation and treatment strategies of callous-unemotional traits. Italian Journal of Pediatrics, 43, 84. doi:10.1186/s13052-017-0404-6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ray, J. V., Frick, P. J., Thornton, L. C., Wall Myers, T. D., Steinberg, L., & Cauffman, E. (2017). Callous–unemotional traits predict self-reported offending in adolescent boys: The mediating role of delinquent peers and the moderating role of parenting practices. Developmental Psychology, 53, 319–328. doi:10.1037/dev0000210CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rowe, R., Maughan, B., Moran, P., Ford, T., Briskman, J., & Goodman, R. (2010). The role of callous and unemotional traits in the diagnosis of conduct disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 688–695. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02199.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salihovic, S., Kerr, M., Özdemir, M., & Pakalniskiene, V. (2012). Directions of effects between adolescent psychopathic traits and parental behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 957–969. doi:10.1007/s10802-012-9623-xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trentacosta, C. J., Waller, R., Neiderhiser, J. M., Shaw, D. S., Natsuaki, M. N., Ganiban, J. M., . . . Hyde, L. W. (2019). Callous-unemotional behaviors and harsh parenting: Reciprocal associations across early childhood and moderation by inherited risk. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 47, 811–823. doi:10.1007/s10802-018-0482-yCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). (2015). International standard classification of education fields of education and training 2013 (ISCED-F 2013): Detailed field descriptions. Montreal, Canada: Author.Google Scholar
van Casteren, M., & Davis, M. H. (2007). Match: A program to assist in matching the conditions of factorial experiments. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 973–978. doi:10.3758/BF03192992CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Viding, E., Blair, R. J. R., Moffitt, T. E., & Plomin, R. (2005). Evidence for substantial genetic risk for psychopathy in 7-year-olds. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 592–597. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00393.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waller, R., Gardner, F., & Hyde, L. W. (2013). What are the associations between parenting, callous–unemotional traits, and antisocial behavior in youth? A systematic review of evidence. Clinical Psychology Review, 33, 593–608. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2013.03.001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waller, R., Gardner, F., Viding, E., Shaw, D. S., Dishion, T. J., Wilson, M. N., & Hyde, L. W. (2014). Bidirectional associations between parental warmth, callous unemotional behavior, and behavior problems in high-risk preschoolers. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42, 1275–1285. doi:10.1007/s10802-014-9871-zCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waller, R., Hyde, L. W., Klump, K. L., & Burt, S. A. (2018). Parenting is an environmental predictor of callous-unemotional traits and aggression: A monozygotic twin differences study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 57, 955–963. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2018.07.882CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waller, R., Shaw, D. S., & Hyde, L. W. (2017). Observed fearlessness and positive parenting interact to predict childhood callous-unemotional behaviors among low-income boys. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 58, 282–291. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12666CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waller, R., Shaw, D. S., Neiderhiser, J. M., Ganiban, J. M., Natsuaki, M. N., Reiss, D., . . . Hyde, L. W. (2017). Toward an understanding of the role of the environment in the development of early callous behavior. Journal of Personality, 85, 90–103. doi:10.1111/jopy.12221CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waller, R., Trentacosta, C. J., Shaw, D. S., Neiderhiser, J. M., Ganiban, J. M., Reiss, D., . . . Hyde, L. W. (2016). Heritable temperament pathways to early callous–unemotional behaviour. British Journal of Psychiatry, 209, 475–482. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.116.181503CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wechsler, D. (1999). Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (2008). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale––Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Wootton, J. M., Frick, P. J., Shelton, K. K., & Silverthorn, P. (1997). Ineffective parenting and childhood conduct problems: The moderating role of callous-unemotional traits. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 301–308.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Supplementary material: File

Pauli et al. supplementary material

Pauli et al. supplementary material

Download Pauli et al. supplementary material(File)
File 122.4 KB