Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-l4dxg Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-02-05T17:31:32.181Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Measuring the biological embedding of racial trauma among Black Americans utilizing the RDoC approach

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 December 2021

Sierra E. Carter Open the ORCID record for Sierra E. Carter [Opens in a new window] ,
Frederick X. Gibbons  and
Steven R.H. Beach Open the ORCID record for Steven R.H. Beach [Opens in a new window]
Sierra E. Carter*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
Frederick X. Gibbons
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
Steven R.H. Beach
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology and Center for Family Research, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
*
Author for Correspondence: Sierra Carter, Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, 140 Decatur St., Suite 1134, Atlanta, GA 30303; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) initiative aims to understand the mechanisms influencing psychopathology through a dimensional approach. Limited research thus far has considered potential racial/ethnic differences in RDoC constructs that are influenced by developmental and contextual processes. A growing body of research has demonstrated that racial trauma is a pervasive chronic stressor that impacts the health of Black Americans across the life course. In this review article, we examine the ways that an RDOC framework could allow us to better understand the biological embedding of racial trauma among Black Americans. We also specifically examine the Negative Valence System domain of RDoC to explore how racial trauma is informed by and can help expand our understanding of this domain. We end the review by providing some additional research considerations and future research directives in the area of racial trauma that build on the RDoC initiative.

Keywords

Black AmericansPTSDracial traumaracismRDoC
Type
Special Issue Article
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 33 , Special Issue 5: Applying RDoC-Informed Approaches to the Study of Development and Psychopathology , December 2021 , pp. 1849 - 1863
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adesogan, O., Lavner, J. A., Carter, S. E., & Beach, S. R. H. (in press). COVID-19 Stress and the health of black Americans in the rural south. Clinical Psychological Science.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). DSM 5. American Psychiatric Association, 70.Google Scholar
American Psychological Association. (2020). “We are living in a racism pandemic” says APA president. Retrieved July 11, 2021 from https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2020/05/racism-pandemicGoogle Scholar
Anderson, R. E., & Stevenson, H. C. (2019). RECASTing racial stress and trauma: Theorizing the healing potential of racial socialization in families. American Psychologist, 74. doi:10.1037/amp0000392CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andrasfay, T., & Goldman, N. (2021). Reductions in 2020 US life expectancy due to COVID-19 and the disproportionate impact on the black and Latino populations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118. doi:10.1073/pnas.2014746118CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barbarin, O. A., Tolan, P. H., Gaylord-Harden, N., & Murry, V. (2020). Promoting social justice for African-American boys and young men through research and intervention: A challenge for developmental science. Applied Developmental Science, 24. doi:10.1080/10888691.2019.1702880CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benner, A. D., Wang, Y., Shen, Y., Boyle, A. E., Polk, R., & Cheng, Y. P. (2018). Racial/ethnic discrimination and well-being during adolescence: A meta-analytic review. American Psychologist, 73, 855–883. doi:10.1037/amp0000204CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bernard, D. L., Calhoun, C. D., Banks, D. E., Halliday, C. A., Hughes-Halbert, C., & Danielson, C. K. (2021). Making the “C-ACE” for a culturally-informed adverse childhood experiences framework to understand the pervasive mental health impact of racism on black youth. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 14. doi:10.1007/s40653-020-00319-9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bor, J., Venkataramani, A. S., Williams, D. R., & Tsai, A. C. (2018). Police killings and their spillover effects on the mental health of black Americans: A population-based, quasi-experimental study. The Lancet, 392. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31130-9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Breslau, N., Chilcoat, H. D., Kessler, R. C., & Davis, G. C. (1999). Previous exposure to trauma and PTSD effects of subsequent trauma: Results from the Detroit area survey of trauma. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156. doi:10.1176/ajp.156.6.902CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Briscione, M. A., Jovanovic, T., & Norrholm, S. D. (2014). Conditioned fear associated phenotypes as robust, translational indices of trauma-, stressor-, and anxiety-related behaviors. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 5. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00088CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brody, G. H., Chen, Y. F., Murry, V. M. B., Simons, R. L., Ge, X., Gibbons, F. X., … Cutrona, C. E. (2006). Perceived discrimination and the adjustment of African American youths: A five-year longitudinal analysis with contextual moderation effects. Child Development, 77. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00927CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brody, G. H., Lei, M., Chae, D. H., Yu, T., Kogan, S. M., & Beach, S. R. H. (2014). Perceived discrimination among African American adolescents and allostatic load: A longitudinal analysis with buffering effects. Child Development, 85, 989–1002. doi:10.1111/cdev.12213CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brody, G. H., Yu, T., & Beach, S. R. H. (2016). Resilience to adversity and the early origins of disease. Development and Psychopathology, 28. doi:10.1017/S0954579416000894CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brondolo, E., Libby, D. J., Denton, E., Thompson, S., Beatty, D. L., Schwartz, J., … Gerin, W. (2008). Racism and ambulatory blood pressure in a community sample. Psychosomatic Medicine, 70. doi:10.1097/PSY.0b013e31815ff3bdCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brosschot, J. F., Gerin, W., & Thayer, J. F. (2006). The perseverative cognition hypothesis: A review of worry, prolonged stress-related physiological activation, and health. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 60. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2005.06.074CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, S. (2019). Nearly half of undergraduates are students of color. But black students lag behind. Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved from https://www.chronicle.com/article/Nearly-Half-of-Undergraduates/245692Google Scholar
Bryant-Davis, T. (2007). Healing requires recognition. The Counseling Psychologist, 35. doi:10.1177/0011000006295152CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bryant-Davis, T., & Ocampo, C. (2005). Racist incident–based trauma. The Counseling Psychologist, 33. doi:10.1177/0011000005276465CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, R., & Helms, J. (2002). Racial Discrimination and Harassment: Race-Based Traumatic Stress. Presented at The American College of Forensic Examiners Conference, Orlando, FL.Google Scholar
Carter, R. T. (2007). Racism and psychological and emotional injury. The Counseling Psychologist, 35. doi:10.1177/0011000006292033CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, R. T., Mazzula, S., Victoria, R., Vazquez, R., Hall, S., Smith, S., … Williams, B. (2013). Initial development of the race-based traumatic stress symptom scale: Assessing the emotional impact of racism. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 5. doi:10.1037/a0025911CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, S. E., Ong, M. L., Simons, R. L., Gibbons, F. X., Lei, M. K., & Beach, S. R. H. (2019). The effect of early discrimination on accelerated aging among African Americans. Health Psychology, 38. doi:10.1037/hea0000788CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chaney, C., Lopez, M., Wiley, K. S., Meyer, C., & Valeggia, C. (2019). Systematic review of chronic discrimination and changes in biology during pregnancy among African American women. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 6. doi:10.1007/s40615-019-00622-8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, E., Miller, G. E., Yu, T., & Brody, G. H. (2016). The great recession and health risks in African American youth. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 53. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2015.12.015CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D. (2008). A multiple-levels-of-analysis perspective on research in development and psychopathology. In Beauchaine, T. P. & Hinshaw, S. P. (Eds.), Child and adolescent psychopathology (pp. 27–57). John Wiley & Sons Inc.Google Scholar
Coates, T. N. (2015). Between the world and me. New York: Spiegel & Grau.Google Scholar
Comas-Díaz, L., Hall, G. N., & Neville, H. A. (2019). Racial trauma: Theory, research, and healing: Introduction to the special issue. American Psychologist, 74. doi:10.1037/amp0000442CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Conradt, E., Carter, S. E., & Crowell, S. E. (2020). Biological embedding of chronic stress across two generations within marginalized communities. Child Development Perspectives, 14. doi:10.1111/cdep.12382CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cuthbert, B. N., & Insel, T. R. (2013). Toward the future of psychiatric diagnosis: The seven pillars of RDoc. BMC Medicine, 11. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-11-126CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, A. Y. (2016). Freedom is a constant struggle: Ferguson, Palestine, and the foundations of a movement. Chicago, IL: Haymarket Books.Google Scholar
DeGruy Leary, J. (2005). Post traumatic slavery syndrome. Milwaukie, OR: Uptone Press.Google Scholar
DeGruy-Leary, J. (2017). Post-traumatic slave syndrome: America's legacy of enduring injury. Portland, OR: Joy DeGruy Publications Inc.Google Scholar
Del Giudice, M., Ellis, B. J., & Shirtcliff, E. A. (2011). The adaptive calibration model of stress responsivity. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.11.007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dunn, E. C., Nishimi, K., Powers, A., & Bradley, B. (2017). Is developmental timing of trauma exposure associated with depressive and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in adulthood? Journal of Psychiatric Research, 84. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2016.09.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellis, B. J., Oldehinkel, A. J., & Nederhof, E. (2017). The adaptive calibration model of stress responsivity: An empirical test in the tracking adolescents’ individual lives survey study. Development and Psychopathology, 29. doi:10.1017/S0954579416000985CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
English, D., Lambert, S. F., Tynes, B. M., Bowleg, L., Zea, M. C., & Howard, L. C. (2020). Daily multidimensional racial discrimination among black U.S. American adolescents. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 66, 101068. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2019.101068CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fani, N., Carter, S., Harnett, N., Ressler, K., & Bradley, B. (in press). Racial discrimination and neural network response to threat in a trauma-exposed black population. JAMA Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Fitzpatrick, K. M., & Boldizar, J. P. (1993). The prevalence and consequences of exposure to violence among African-American youth. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 32. doi:10.1097/00004583-199303000-00026Google ScholarPubMed
Franklin, J. C., Jamieson, J. P., Glenn, C. R., & Nock, M. K. (2014). How developmental psychopathology theory and research can inform the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) project. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 44, 280–290.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gao, M., Ostlund, B., Brown, M., Kaliush, P., Terrell, S., Vlisides-Henry, R., … Conradt, E. (2021). Prenatal maternal transdiagnostic, RDoC-informed predictors of newborn neurobehavior: Differences by sex. Development and Psychopathology, 1–12. doi:10.1017/S0954579420002266Google ScholarPubMed
Gaylord-Harden, N. K., Bai, G. J., & Simic, D. (2017). Examining a dual-process model of desensitization and hypersensitization to community violence in African American male adolescents. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 30. doi:10.1002/jts.22220CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gaylord-Harden, N. K., Barbarin, O., Tolan, P. H., & Murry, V. M. (2018). Understanding development of African American boys and young men: Moving from risks to positive youth development. American Psychologist, 73. doi:10.1037/amp0000300CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gee, G. C., Walsemann, K. M., & Brondolo, E. (2012). A life course perspective on how racism may be related to health inequities. American Journal of Public Health, 102, 967–974. doi:10.2105/AJPH .2012.300666CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geronimus, A. T. (1992). The weathering hypothesis and the health of African-American women and infants: Evidence and speculations. Ethnicity & Disease, 2, 207–221. Retrieved from http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/1467758Google ScholarPubMed
Geronimus, A. T., Hicken, M., Keene, D., & Bound, J. (2006). “Weathering” and age patterns of allostatic load scores among blacks and whites in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 96, 826–833. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2004.060749CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F. X., Fleischli, M. E., Cutrona, C. E., & Stock, M. L. (2018). Moderation of the effects of discrimination-induced affective responses on health outcomes. Psychology and Health, 33. doi:10.1080/08870446.2017.1314479CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gibbons, F. X., Roberts, M. E., Gerrard, M., Li, Z., Beach, S. R. H., Simons, R. L., … Philibert, R. A. (2012). The impact of stress on the life history strategies of African American adolescents: Cognitions, genetic moderation, and the role of discrimination. Developmental Psychology, 48. doi:10.1037/a0026599CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gluck, R. L., Hartzell, G. E., Dixon, H. D., Michopoulos, V., Powers, A., Stevens, J. S., … Gillespie, C. F. (2021). Trauma exposure and stress-related disorders in a large, urban, predominantly African-American, female sample. Archives of Women's Mental Health. doi:10.1007/s00737-021-01141-4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hampton-Anderson, J. N., Carter, S., Fani, N., Gillespie, C. F., Henry, T. L., Holmes, E., … Kaslow, N. J. (2021). Adverse childhood experiences in African Americans: Framework, practice, and policy. American Psychologist, 76. doi:10.1037/amp0000767CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Helms, J. E., Nicolas, G., & Green, C. E. (2012). Racism and ethnoviolence as trauma: Enhancing professional and research training. Traumatology, 18. doi:10.1177/1534765610396728CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, K. (2005). Life history theory and evolutionary anthropology. Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews, 2. doi:10.1002/evan.1360020303CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoffman, J. S., Shandas, V., & Pendleton, N. (2020). The effects of historical housing policies on resident exposure to intra-urban heat: A study of 108 US urban areas. Climate, 8. doi:10.3390/cli8010012CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoggard, L. S., Hill, L. K., Gray, D. L., & Sellers, R. M. (2015). Capturing the cardiac effects of racial discrimination: Do the effects “keep going”? International Journal of Psychophysiology, 97. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2015.04.015CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hope, E. C., Brinkman, M., Hoggard, L. S., Stokes, M. N., Hatton, V., Volpe, V. V., & Elliot, E. (2021). Black adolescents’ anticipatory stress responses to multilevel racism: The role of racial identity. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. doi:10.1037/ort0000547CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Insel, T., Cuthbert, B., Garvey, M., Heinssen, R., Pine, D. S., Quinn, K., … Wang, P. (2010). Research domain criteria (RDoC): Toward a new classification framework for research on mental disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.09091379CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Intrator, J., Tannen, J., & Massey, D. S. (2016). Segregation by race and income in the United States 1970–2010. Social Science Research, 60. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2016.08.003CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, L. R., McGuire, J., Lazarus, R., & Palmer, A. A. (2012). Pavlovian fear memory circuits and phenotype models of PTSD. Neuropharmacology, 62. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.07.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, J. M. (1997). Prejudice and racism. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Jones, S. C., & Neblett, E. W. (2017). Future directions in research on racism-related stress and racial-ethnic protective factors for black youth. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 46, 754–766. doi:10.1080/15374416.2016.1146991CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jovanovic, T., Duncan, E. J., Kaye, J., Garza, K., Norrholm, S. D., Inslicht, S. S., … Dunlop, B. W. (2020). Psychophysiological treatment outcomes: Corticotropin-releasing factor type 1 receptor antagonist increases inhibition of fear-potentiated startle in PTSD patients. Psychophysiology, 57. doi:10.1111/psyp.13356CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keppel, K. G., Pearcy, J. N., & Wagener, D. K. (2002). Trends in racial and ethnic-specific rates for the health status indicators: United States, 1990-98. Healthy People 2000 Statistical Notes/National Center for Health Statistics, 23.Google Scholar
Kijakazi, K. (2019). Bold, equitable policy solutions are needed to close the racial and gender wealth gaps. Urban Inst, 1–12.Google Scholar
Kuehn, B. M. (2021). AHA takes aim at structural racism as a public health crisis. Circulation, 143. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.053306CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lake, J. I., Yee, C. M., & Miller, G. A. (2017). Misunderstanding RDoc. Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 225. doi:10.1027/2151-2604/a000301CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lanier, Y., Sommers, M. S., Fletcher, J., Sutton, M. Y., & Roberts, D. D. (2017). Examining racial discrimination frequency, racial discrimination stress, and psychological well-being among black early adolescents. Journal of Black Psychology, 43, 219–229. doi:10.1177/0095798416638189CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lavner, J., Ong, M. L., Carter, S. E., Hart, A. R., & Beach, S. R. H. (under review). Racial discrimination predicts depressive symptoms throughout adolescence among Black youth.Google Scholar
Lavner, J. A., Hart, A. R., Carter, S. E., & Beach, S. R. H. (2021). Longitudinal effects of racial discrimination on depressive symptoms among black youth: Between- and within-person effects. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. doi: 10.1016/j.jaac.2021.04.020Google ScholarPubMed
Lewis, T. T., Cogburn, C. D., & Williams, D. R. (2015). Self-Reported experiences of discrimination and health: Scientific advances, ongoing controversies, and emerging issues. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 11. doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112728CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lilienfeld, S. O., & Treadway, M. T. (2016). Clashing diagnostic approaches: DSM-ICD versus RDoc. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 12. doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-021815-093122CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liu, H., Petukhova, M. V., Sampson, N. A., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Alonso, J., Andrade, L. H., … Kessler, R. C. (2017). Association of DSM-IV posttraumatic stress disorder with traumatic experience type and history in the world health organization World Mental Health Surveys. JAMA Psychiatry, 74. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.3783CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manduca, R. (2018). Income inequality and the persistence of racial economic disparities. Sociological Science, 5. doi:10.15195/v5.a8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maples-Keller, J. L., Rauch, S. A. M., Jovanovic, T., Yasinski, C. W., Goodnight, J. M., Sherrill, A., … Norrholm, S. D. (2019). Changes in trauma-potentiated startle, skin conductance, and heart rate within prolonged exposure therapy for PTSD in high and low treatment responders. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 68. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2019.102147CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Massey, D. S. (2007). Categorically unequal: The American stratification system. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Massey, D. S. (2017). Why death haunts black lives. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114. doi:10.1073/pnas.1620083114CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matheson, K., Bombay, A., & Anisman, H. (2018). Culture as an ingredient of personalized medicine. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience, 43. doi:10.1503/jpn.170234CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McArdle, N., Osypuk, T. L., & Acevedo-Garcia, D. (2007). Disparities in neighborhood poverty of poor black and white children. Retrieved from http://diversitydata.sph.harvard.edu/Publications/brief7.pdfGoogle Scholar
McEwen, B. S. (1998). Stress, adaptation, and disease: Allostasis and allostatic load. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 840. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1998.tb09546.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McEwen, B. S. (2017). Neurobiological and systemic effects of chronic stress. Chronic Stress, 1. doi:10.1177/2470547017692328CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLaughlin, K. A., Conron, K. J., Koenen, K. C., & Gilman, S. E. (2010). Childhood adversity, adult stressful life events, and risk of past-year psychiatric disorder: A test of the stress sensitization hypothesis in a population-based sample of adults. Psychological Medicine, 40. doi:10.1017/S0033291709992121CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mekawi, Y., Carter, S., Brown, B., Martinez de Andino, A., Fani, N., Michopoulos, V., & Powers, A. (2021). Interpersonal trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder among black women: Does racial discrimination matter? Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 22. doi:10.1080/15299732.2020.1869098CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Metzger, I. W., Anderson, R. E., Are, F., & Ritchwood, T. (2021). Healing interpersonal and racial trauma: Integrating racial socialization into trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy for African American youth. Child Maltreatment, 26. doi:10.1177/1077559520921457CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
National Public Radio. (2017). You, me and them: Experiencing discrimination in America. Retrieved from https://www.npr.org/series/559149737/you-me-and-them-experiencing-discrimination-in-americaGoogle Scholar
Neblett, E. W. (2019). Racism and health: Challenges and future directions in behavioral and psychological research. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 25. doi:10.1037/cdp0000253CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Norrholm, S. D., Glover, E. M., Stevens, J. S., Fani, N., Galatzer-Levy, I. R., Bradley, B., … Jovanovic, T. (2015). Fear load: The psychophysiological over-expression of fear as an intermediate phenotype associated with trauma reactions. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 98. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2014.11.005CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Norrholm, S. D., Jovanovic, T., Briscione, M. A., Anderson, K. M., Kwon, C. K., Warren, V. T., … Bradley, B. (2014). Generalization of fear-potentiated startle in the presence of auditory cues: A parametric analysis. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 8. doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00361CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nusslock, R., Brody, G. H., Armstrong, C. C., Carroll, A. L., Sweet, L. H., Yu, T., … Miller, G. E. (2019). Higher peripheral inflammatory signaling associated with lower resting-state functional brain connectivity in emotion regulation and central executive networks. Biological Psychiatry, 86. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.03.968CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Reilly, K. B. (2020). AMA: Racism is a threat to public health. American Medical Association. https://www.ama-assn.org/delivering-care/health-equity/ama-racism-threat-public-healthGoogle Scholar
Pachter, L. M., Bernstein, B. A., Szalacha, L. A., & Coll, C. G. (2010). Perceived racism and discrimination in children and youths: An exploratory study. Health & Social Work, 35. doi:10.1093/hsw/35.1.61CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pascoe, E. A., & Smart Richman, L. (2009). Perceived discrimination and health: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 135. doi:10.1037/a0016059CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patton, D. U., Eschmann, R. D., & Butler, D. A. (2013). Internet banging: New trends in social media, gang violence, masculinity and hip hop. Computers in Human Behavior, 29. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.12.035CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Phan, J., So, S., Thomas, A., & Gaylord-Harden, N. (2020). Hyperarousal and hypervigilance in African American male adolescents exposed to community violence. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 70. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2020.101168CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rakoff, V. A. (1966). Long-term effects of the concentration camp experience. Viewpoints: Labor Zionist Movement of Canada, 1, 17–22.Google Scholar
Ressler, K. J. (2020). Translating across circuits and genetics toward progress in fear- and anxiety-related disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 177. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2020.20010055CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberson, K., & Carter, R. T. (2021). The relationship between race-based traumatic stress and the trauma symptom checklist: Does racial trauma differ in symptom presentation? Traumatology. doi:10.1037/trm0000306Google Scholar
Roberts, A. L., Gilman, S. E., Breslau, J., Breslau, N., & Koenen, K. C. (2011). Race/ethnic differences in exposure to traumatic events, development of post-traumatic stress disorder, and treatment-seeking for post-traumatic stress disorder in the United States. Psychological Medicine, 41. doi:10.1017/S0033291710000401CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robins, E., & Guze, S. B. (1970). Establishment of diagnostic validity in psychiatric illness: Its application to schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 126. doi:10.1176/ajp.126.7.983CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Romens, S. E., McDonald, J., Svaren, J., & Pollak, S. D. (2015). Associations between early life stress and gene methylation in children. Child Development, 86. doi:10.1111/cdev.12270CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenthal, P. A., & Rosenthal, S. (1980). Holocaust effect in the third generation: Child of another time. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 34), doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1980.34.4.572CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saleem, F. T., Anderson, R. E., & Williams, M. (2020). Addressing the “Myth” of racial trauma: Developmental and ecological considerations for youth of color. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 23. doi:10.1007/s10567-019-00304-1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sampson, R. J. (1997). Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science, 277. doi:10.1126/science.277.5328.918CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sampson, R. J. (2011). The great American city. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Sanders-Phillips, K. (2009). Racial discrimination: A continuum of violence exposure for children of color. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 12. doi:10.1007/s10567-009-0053-4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shonkoff, J. P. (2016). Capitalizing on advances in science to reduce the health consequences of early childhood adversity. JAMA Pediatrics, 170. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2016.1559CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sibrava, N. J., Bjornsson, A. S., Pérez Benítez, A. C. I., Moitra, E., Weisberg, R. B., & Keller, M. B. (2019). Posttraumatic stress disorder in African American and latinx adults: Clinical course and the role of racial and ethnic discrimination. American Psychologist, 74. doi:10.1037/amp0000339CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simons, R. L., Lei, M.-K., Klopack, E., Beach, S. R. H., Gibbons, F. X., & Philibert, R. A. (2020). The effects of social adversity, discrimination, and health risk behaviors on the accelerated aging of African Americans: Further support for the weathering hypothesis. Social Science & Medicine. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113169Google ScholarPubMed
Simons, R. L., Lei, M.-K., Klopack, E., Zhang, Y., Gibbons, F. X., & Beach, S. R. H. (2021). Racial discrimination, inflammation, and chronic illness among African American women at midlife: Support for the weathering perspective. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 8. doi:10.1007/s40615-020-00786-8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Slopen, N., Shonkoff, J. P., Albert, M. A., Yoshikawa, H., Jacobs, A., Stoltz, R., & Williams, D. R. (2016). Racial disparities in child adversity in the U.S. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 50. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2015.06.013CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, J. R., & Patton, D. U. (2016). Posttraumatic stress symptoms in context: Examining trauma responses to violent exposures and homicide death among black males in urban neighborhoods. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 86. doi:10.1037/ort0000101CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith Lee, J. R., & Robinson, M. A. (2019). “That's my number one fear in life. It's the police”: Examining young Black men's exposures to trauma and loss resulting from police violence and police killings. Journal of Black Psychology, 45. doi:10.1177/0095798419865152CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sumner, J. A., Powers, A., Jovanovic, T., & Koenen, K. C. (2016). Genetic influences on the neural and physiological bases of acute threat: A research domain criteria (RDoC) perspective. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 171. doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.32384CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turner, R. J., & Avison, W. R. (2003). Status variations in stress exposure: Implications for the interpretation of research on race, socioeconomic status, and gender. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44. doi:10.2307/1519795CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tursich, M., Neufeld, R. W. J., Frewen, P. A., Harricharan, S., Kibler, J. L., Rhind, S. G., & Lanius, R. A. (2014). Association of trauma exposure with proinflammatory activity: A transdiagnostic meta-analysis. Translational Psychiatry, 4. doi:10.1038/tp.2014.56CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
U.S. Department of Education. (2014). Civil rights data collection snapshot: College and career readiness. US Department of Education, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Utsey, S. O., Belvet, B., Hubbard, R. R., Fischer, N. L., Opare-Henaku, A., & Gladney, L. L. (2013). Development and validation of the prolonged activation and anticipatory race-related stress scale. Journal of Black Psychology, 39, 532–559. doi:10.1177/0095798412461808CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Volpe, V. V., Hoggard, L. S., Willis, H. A., & Tynes, B. M. (2021). Anti-Black structural racism goes online: A conceptual model for racial health disparities research. Ethnicity & Disease, 31. doi:10.18865/ed.31.S1.311CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walensky, R. P. (2021). Media statement from CDC Director Rochelle P. Walensky, MD, MPH, on racism and health: media statement: for immediate release: Thursday, April 8, 2021.Google Scholar
Walker, R., Francis, D., Brody, G., Simons, R., Cutrona, C., & Gibbons, F. (2017). A longitudinal study of racial discrimination and risk for death ideation in African American youth. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 47. doi:10.1111/sltb.12251CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wangelin, B. C., & Tuerk, P. W. (2015). Taking the pulse of prolonged exposure therapy: Physiological reactivity to trauma imagery as an objective measure of treatment response. Depression and Anxiety, 32. doi:10.1002/da.22449CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weston, C. S. E. (2014). Posttraumatic stress disorder: A theoretical model of the hyperarousal subtype. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 5. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00037CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, M. T., Metzger, I. W., Leins, C., & DeLapp, C. (2018). Assessing racial trauma within a DSM–5 framework: The UConn racial/ethnic stress and trauma survey. Practice Innovations, 3. doi:10.1037/pri0000076CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, M. T., Printz, D., & DeLapp, R. C. T. (2018). Assessing racial trauma in African Americans with the trauma symptoms of discrimination scale. Psychology of Violence, 8, 735–747. doi:10.1037/vio0000212CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, W. (1987). The truly disadvantaged: Essays on inner city woes and public policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Wolf, E. J., Maniates, H., Nugent, N., Maihofer, A. X., Armstrong, D., Ratanatharathorn, A., … Logue, M. W. (2018). Traumatic stress and accelerated DNA methylation age: A meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 92. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.12.007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yang, J.-J., & Jiang, W. (2020). Immune biomarkers alterations in post-traumatic stress disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 268. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.02.044CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yehuda, R., Daskalakis, N. P., Bierer, L. M., Bader, H. N., Klengel, T., Holsboer, F., & Binder, E. B. (2016). Holocaust exposure induced intergenerational effects on FKBP5 methylation. Biological Psychiatry, 80. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.08.005CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yehuda, R., Daskalakis, N. P., Lehrner, A., Desarnaud, F., Bader, H. N., Makotkine, I., … Meaney, M. J. (2014). Influences of maternal and paternal PTSD on epigenetic regulation of the glucocorticoid receptor gene in holocaust survivor offspring. American Journal of Psychiatry, 171. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2014.13121571CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yehuda, R., Flory, J. D., Pratchett, L. C., Buxbaum, J., Ising, M., & Holsboer, F. (2010). Putative biological mechanisms for the association between early life adversity and the subsequent development of PTSD. Psychopharmacology, 212. doi:10.1007/s00213-010-1969-6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yehuda, R., & Lehrner, A. (2018). Intergenerational transmission of trauma effects: Putative role of epigenetic mechanisms. World Psychiatry, 17. doi:10.1002/wps.20568CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed