Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t8hqh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T03:44:53.611Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Maternal sensitivity buffers the adrenocortical implications of intimate partner violence exposure during early childhood

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 April 2011

Leah C. Hibel ,
Douglas A. Granger ,
Clancy Blair  and
Martha J. Cox
Leah C. Hibel*
Affiliation:
Purdue University
Douglas A. Granger
Affiliation:
Johns Hopkins University
Clancy Blair
Affiliation:
New York University
Martha J. Cox
Affiliation:
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Leah C. Hibel, Department of Child Development and Family Studies, 101 Gates Road, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47906; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This study prospectively examined the effect of intimate partner violence (IPV) on adrenocortical reactivity and recovery during early childhood. The sample (n = 1102 mother–infant dyads; 49.2% male) was racially diverse and from predominantly low-income, rural communities. To measure IPV exposure mothers completed the Conflicts Tactics Scale, and her caretaking behaviors were observed when her child was approximately 7, 15, and 24 months of age. Children's saliva samples, later assayed for cortisol, were collected around challenge tasks designed to elicit emotional reactivity. IPV was related to a trajectory of increased cortisol reactivity from infancy to toddlerhood. By contrast, the trajectory for non-IPV-exposed children decreased in cortisol reactivity across 7 to 24 months of age. At the 24-month assessment, on average, toddlers did not exhibit a cortisol reaction; however, those exposed to high levels of violence continued to have reactivity. Accumulative levels of IPV across the first 2 years of life predicted cortisol reactivity at 24 months of age. Early (7-month) sensitive maternal behavior moderated this relationship, so that only children exposed to both early insensitivity and high accumulated IPV exhibited increased reactivity at the 24-month assessment. Findings are discussed in relation to the risky family framework.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 23 , Issue 2 , May 2011 , pp. 689 - 701
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adam, E. K., Klimes-Dougan, B., & Gunnar, M. R. (2007). Emotional and social regulation of the adrenocortical response to stress. In Coch, D., Dawson, G., & Fischer, K. W. (Ed.), Human behavior and the developing brain: Atypical development (2nd ed., pp. 264–304). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Ahnert, L., Gunnar, M. R., Lamb, M. E., & Barthel, M. (2004). Transition to child care: Associations with infant–mother attachment, infant negative emotion, and cortisol elevations. Child Development, 75, 639–650.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Albers, E. M., Riksen-Walraven, J. M., Sweep, F. C., & de Weerth, C. (2008). Maternal behavior predicts infant cortisol recovery from a mild everyday stressor. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 97–103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bauer, A. M., Quas, J. A., & Boyce, W. T. (2002). Associations between physiological reactivity and children's behavior: Advantages of a multisystem approach. Journal of Development and Behavioral Pediatrics, 23, 102–113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, C., Granger, D., Willoughby, M., Kivlighan, K., & the FLP Investigators. (2006). Maternal sensitivity is related to hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis stress reactivity and regulation in response to emotion challenge in 6-month-old infants. Annals of New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 263–267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blair, C., Granger, D. A., Kivlighan, K. T., Mills-Koonce, R., Willoughby, M., Greenberg, M. T., et al. (2008). Maternal and child contributions to cortisol response to emotional arousal in young children from low-income, rural communities. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1095–1109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowlby, J. (1979). The Bowlby–Ainsworth attachment theory. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 2, 637–638.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bradley, R. H., & Caldwell, B. M. (1984). The Home Inventory and Family Demographics. Developmental Psychology, 20, 315–320.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burchinal, M., Vernon-Feagans, L., Cox, M., & Invest Key Family Life Project. (2008). Cumulative social risk, parenting, and infant development in rural low-income communities. Parenting-Science and Practice, 8, 41–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buss, K. A., & Goldsmith, H. H. (1998). Fear and anger regulation in infancy: Effects on the temporal dynamics of affective expression. Child Development, 69, 359–374.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carlson, S., Mandell, D., & Williams, L. (2004). Executive function and threory of mind: Stability and prediction from ages 2 to 3. Developmental Psychology, 40, 1105–1122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chrousos, G. P., & Gold, P. W. (1992). The concepts of stress and stress system disorders. Overview of physical and behavioral homeostasis. Journal of the American Medical Association, 267, 1244–1252.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., Cummings, E. M., Greenberg, M. T., & Marvin, R. S. (1990). An organizational perspective on attachment beyond infancy. In Greenberg, M., Cicchetti, D., & Cummings, M. (Eds.), Attachment in the preschool years (pp. 3–50). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Gunnar, M. R. (2008). Integrating biological measures into the design and evaluation of preventive interventions. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 737–743.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Tucker, D. (1994). Development and self-regulatory structures of the mind. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 533–549.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conger, R. D., Ge, X. J., Elder, G. H., Lorenz, F. O., & Simons, R. L. (1994). Economic-stress, coercive family process, and developmental problems of adolescents. Child Development, 65, 541–561.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cox, M. J., Paley, B., Burchinal, M., & Payne, C. C. (1999). Marital perceptions and interactions across the transition to parenthood. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 61, 611–625.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crockenberg, S., & Langrock, A. (2001). The role of specific emotions in children's responses to interparental conflict: A test of the model. Journal of Family Psychology, 15, 163–182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cummings, E. M. (1987). Coping with background anger in early childhood. Child Development, 58, 976–984.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cummings, E. M., Ballard, M., & El-Sheikh, M. (1991). Responses of children and adolescents to interadult anger as a function of gender, age, and mode of expression. Merrill–Palmer Quarterly, 37, 543–560.Google Scholar
Cummings, E. M., Iannotti, R., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (1985). The influence of conflict between adults on the emotions and aggression of young children. Developmental Psychology, 21, 495–507.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummings, E. M., Vogel, D., Cummings, J. S., & El-Sheikh, M. (1989). Children's responses to different forms of expression of anger between adults. Child Development, 60, 1392–1404.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davies, P. T., & Cummings, E. M. (1994). Marital conflict and child adjustment: An emotional security hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 387–411.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davies, P. T., & Cummings, E. M. (1998). Exploring children's emotional security as a mediator of the link between marital relations and child adjustment. Child Development, 69, 124–139.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davies, P. T., Myers, R. L., Cummings, E. M., & Heindel, S (1999). Adult conflict history and children's subsequent responses to conflict. Journal of Family Psychology, 13, 610–628.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, P. T., Sturge-Apple, M. L., Cicchetti, D., & Cummings, E. M. (2007). The role of child adrenocortical functioning in pathways between interparental conflict and child maladjustment. Developmental Psychology, 43, 918–930.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davies, P. T., Sturge-Apple, M. L., Cicchetti, D., & Cummings, E. M. (2008). Adrenocortical underpinnings of children's psychological reactivity to interparental conflict. Child Development, 79, 1693–1706.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dejonghe, E. S., Bogat, G. A., Levendosky, A. A., von Eye, A., & Davidson, W. S. (2005). Infant exposure to domestic violence predicts heightened sensitivity to adult verbal conflict. Infant Mental Health Journal, 26, 268–281.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dickerson, S. S., & Kemeny, M. E. (2004). Acute stressors and cortisol responses: A theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 355–391.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. (1990). Mechanisms in the cycle of violence. Science, 250, 1678–1683.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Easterbrooks, M. A., & Emde, R. N. (1988). Marital and parental relationships: The role of affect in the family system. In Hinde, R. A. & Stevenson-Hinde, J. (Eds.), Relationships within families: Mutual influences. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Edleson, J. L. (1999). The overlap between childmaltreatment and women battering. Violence Against Women, 5, 134–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Egeland, B., Pianta, R., & Obrien, M. A. (1993). Maternal intrusiveness in infancy and child maladaptation in early school years. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 359–370.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
El-Sheikh, M. (2005). The role of emotional responses and physiological reactivity in the marital conflict–child functioning link. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 1191–1199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
El-Sheikh, M., & Cummings, E. M. (1992). Availability of control and preschoolers' responses to interadult anger. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 15, 207–226.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
El-Sheikh, M., Cummings, E. M., & Goetsch, V. L. (1989). Coping with adults' angry behavior: Behavioral, physiological, and verbal responses in preschoolers. Developmental Psychology, 25, 490–498.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
El-Sheikh, M., & Elmore-Staton, L. (2004). The link between marital conflict and child adjustment: parent–child conflict and perceived attachments as mediators, potentiators, and mitigators of risk. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 631–648.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
El-Sheikh, M., Keller, P. S., & Erath, S. A. (2007). Marital conflict and risk for child maladjustment over time: Skin conductance level reactivity as a vulnerability factor. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 715–727.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
El-Sheikh, M., Kouros, C. D., Erath, S., Cummings, E. M., Keller, P., & Staton, L. (2009). Marital conflict and children's externalizing behavior: Interactions between parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system activity. Monographs of the Society for the Research in Child Development, 74, 1–79.Google ScholarPubMed
El-Sheikh, M., & Whitson, S. A. (2006). Longitudinal relations between marital conflict and child adjustment: Vagal regulation as a protective factor. Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 30–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ernst, A. A., Weiss, S. J., & Enright-Smith, S. (2006). Child witnesses and victims in homes with adult intimate partner violence. Academic Emergency Medicine, 13, 696–699.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fantuzzo, J. W., DePaola, L. M., Lambert, L., Martino, T., Anderson, G., & Sutton, S. (1991). Effects of interparental violence on the psychological adjustment and competencies of young children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 258–265.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Field, T. (1998). Maternal depression effects on infants and early interventions. Preventive Medicine, 27, 200–203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Flinn, M. V. (1999). Family environment, stress, and health during childhood. In Panter-Brick, C. & Worthman, C. (Eds.), Hormones, health, and behavior (pp. 105–138). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Fries, A. B. W., Shirtcliff, E. A., & Pollak, S. D. (2008). Neuroendocrine dysregulation following early social deprivation in children. Developmental Psychobiology, 50, 588–599.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frosch, C. A., & Mangelsdorf, S. C. (2001). Marital behavior, parenting behavior, and multiple reports of preschoolers' behavior problems: Mediation or moderation? Developmental Psychology, 37, 502–519.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gelles, R. J. (1974). The violent home. Beverly Hill, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Goldsmith, H. H., & Rothbart, M. (1988). The Laboratory Temperament Assessment Battery (Lab-TAB). Eugene, OR: Oregon Center for the Study of Emotion.Google Scholar
Granger, D. A., Serbin, L. A., Schwartzman, A., Lehoux, P., Cooperman, J., & Ikeda, S. (1998). Children's salivary cortisol, internalising behaviour problems, and family enviornment: Results from the Concordia Longitudinal Risk Project. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 22, 707–728.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grych, J. H., & Fincham, F. D. (1990). Marital conflict and children's adjustment: A cognitive–contextual framework. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 267–290.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R., Brodersen, L., Nachmias, M., Buss, K., & Rigatuso, J. (1996). Stress reactivity and attachment security. Developmental Psychobiology, 29, 191–204.3.0.CO;2-M>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R., Connors, J., & Isensee, J. (1989). Lack of stability in neonatal adrenocortical reactivity because of rapid habituation of the adrenocortical response. Developmental Psychobiology, 22, 221–233.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R., & Davis, E. P. (Eds.). (2003). Stress and emotion in early childhood. New York: Wiley.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., & Donzella, B. (2002). Social regulation of the cortisol levels in early human development. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 27, 199–220.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R., Larson, M. C., Hertsgaard, L., Harris, M. L., & Brodersen, L. (1992). The stressfulness of separation among nine-month-old infants: Effects of social context variables and infant temperament. Child Development, 63, 290–303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R., Morison, S. J., Chisholm, K., & Schuder, M. (2001). Salivary cortisol levels in children adopted from romanian orphanages. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 611–628.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R., & Quevedo, K. (2007). The neurobiology of stress and development. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 145–173.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R., Talge, N. M., & Herrera, A. (2009). Stressor paradigms in developmental studies: What does and does not work to produce mean increases in salivary cortisol. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 953–967.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haley, D., & Stansbury, K. (2003). Infant stress and parent responsiveness: Regulation of physiology and behavior during still-face and reunion. Child Development, 74, 1534–1546.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henry, J. P. (1992). Biological basis of the stress response. Integrative Physiological and Behavioral Science, 27, 66–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hibel, L. C., Granger, D. A., Blair, C., Cox, M., & The Family Life Project Investigators. (2009). Intimate partner violence moderates the relationship between mother–infant adrenocortical responses to an emotional challenge. Journal of Family Psychology, 23, 615–625.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hofer, M. A. (2006). Evolutionary basis of adaptation in resilience and vulnerability: Response to Cicchetti and Blender. Annals of New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 259–262.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holden, G. W. (1998). The development of research into another consequence of family violence. In Geffner, R., Holden, G. W., & Jouriles, E. N. (Eds.), Children exposed to marital violence: Theory, research, and intervention. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jaffe, P. G., Wolfe, D. A., & Wilson, S. K. (1990). Children of battered women. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Jahromi, L. B., Putnam, S. P., & Stifter, C. A. (2004). Maternal regulation of infant reactivity from 2 to 6 months. Developmental Psychology, 40, 477–487.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Janoff-Bulman, R. (1992). Shattered assumptions: Towards a new psychology of trauma. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Jouriles, E. N., Murphy, C. M., & O'Leary, K. D. (1989). Interspousal aggression, marital discord, and child problems. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 453–455.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jouriles, E. N., & Norwood, W. D. (1995). Physical aggression toward boys and girls in families characterized by the battering of women. Journal of Family Psychology, 9, 69–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaplan, L. A., Evans, L., & Monk, C. (2008). Effects of mothers' prenatal psychiatric status and postnatal caregiving on infant biobehavioral regulation: Can prenatal programming be modified? Early Human Development, 84, 249–256.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kestler, L. P., & Lewis, M. (2009). Cortisol response to inoculation in 4-year-old children. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 743–751.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirschbaum, C., Prüssner, J. C., Stone, A. A., Federenko, I., Gaab, J., Lintz, D., et al. (1995). Persistent high cortisol responses to repeated psychological stress in a subpopulation of healthy men. Psychosomatic Medicine, 57, 468–474.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kochanska, G., Tjebkes, T. L., & Forman, D. R. (1998). Children's emerging regulation of conduct: Restraint, compliance, and internalization from infancy to the second year. Child Development, 69, 1378–1389.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krishnakumar, A., & Buehler, C. (2000). Interparental conflict and parenting behaviors: A metaanalytic review. Family Relations, 49, 25–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kudielka, B. M., Von Känel, R., Preckel, D., Zgraggen, L., Mischler, K., & Fischer, J. E. (2006). Exhaustion is associated with reduced habituation of free cortisol responses to repeated acute psychosocial stress. Biological Psychology, 72, 147–153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levendosky, A. A., & Graham-Bermann, S. A. (2000). Behavioral observations of parenting in battered women. Journal of Family Psychology, 14, 80–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis, M. (2001). The origins of the self-conscious child. In Crozier, R. & Alden, L. E. (Eds.), International handbook of social anxiety: Concepts, research, and interventions relating to the self and shyness (pp. 101–118). Sussex: Wiley.Google Scholar
Lewis, M., & Ramsay, D. S. (1995). Stability and change in cortisol and behavioral response to stress during the first 18 months of life. Developmental Psychobiology, 28, 419–428.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lisonbee, J. A., Mize, J., Payne, A. L., & Granger, D. A. (2008). Children's cortisol and the quality of teacher–child relationships in child care. Child Development, 79, 1818–1832.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loman, M. M., Gunnar, M. R., & The Early Experience Stress, and Neurobehavioral Development Center. (2009). Developmental determinants of sensitivity and resistance to stress: A tribute to Seymour “Gig” Levine. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 34, 867–876.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lopez-Duran, N. L., Olson, S. L., Hajal, N. J., Felt, B. T., & Vazquez, D. M. (2009). Hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis functioning in reactive and proactive aggression in children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 169–182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lupien, S. J., King, S., Meaney, M. J., & McEwen, B. S. (2001). Can poverty get under your skin? Basal cortisol levels and cognitive function in children from low and high socioeconomic status. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 653–676.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacKinnon, D. P., & Dwyer, J. H. (1993). Estimating mediated effects in prevention studies. Evaluation Review, 17, 144–158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Margolin, G., Gordis, E. B., & Oliver, P. H. (2004). Links between marital and parent–child interactions: Moderating role of husband-to-wife aggression. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 753–771.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCloskey, L. A., & Stuewig, J. (2001). The quality of peer relationships among children exposed to family violence. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 83–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McEwen, B. S., & Seeman, T. (1999). Protective and damaging effects of mediators of stress. Elaborating and testing the concepts of allostasis and allostatic load. Annuals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 896, 30–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moore, C. G., Probst, J. C., Tompkins, M., Cuffe, S., & Martin, A. B. (2007). The prevalence of violent disagreements in US families: Effects of residence, race/ethnicity, and parental stress. Pediatrics, 119(Suppl. 1), S68–S76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morelius, E., Nelson, N., & Gustafsson, P. A. (2007). Salivary cortisol response in mother–infant dyads at high psychosocial risk. Child Care Health Development, 33, 128–136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Early Child Care Research Network. (1999). Child outcomes when child care center classes meet recommended standards for quality. American Journal of Public Health, 89, 1072–1077.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Osofsky, J. D. (1999). The impact of violence on children. Future Child, 9, 33–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Owen, M. T., & Cox, M. J. (1997). Marital conflict and the development of infant–parent attachment relationships. Journal of Family Psychology, 11, 152–164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patterson, G. R. (1984). Siblings: Fellow travelers in coercive family processes. Advances in the Study of Aggression 1, 173–215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pendry, P., & Adam, E. K., (2007). Associations between parents' marital functioning, maternal parenting quality, maternal emotion and child cortisol levels. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 31, 218–231.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raghunathan, T. E., Lepkowski, J. M., Van Hoewyk, J., & Solenberg, P. (2001). A multivariate technique for multiply imputing missing values using a sequence of regression models. Survey Methodology, 27, 85–95.Google Scholar
Repetti, R. L., Taylor, S. E., & Seeman, T. E. (2002). Risky families: Family social environments and the mental and physical health of offspring. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 330–366.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reus, V. I., Peeke, H. V., & Miner, C. (1985). Habituation and cortisol dysregulation in depression. Biological Psychiatry, 20, 980–989.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rhoades, K. A. (2008). Children's responses to interparental conflict: A meta-analysis of their associations with child adjustment. Child Development, 79, 1942–1956.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Richman, J. M., & Fraser, M. W. (Eds.). (2001). The context of youth violence: Resilience, risk, and protection. Westport, CT: Praeger.Google Scholar
Rutter, M., O'Connor, T., & the English and Romanian Adoptees Study Team. (2004). Are there biological programming effects for psychological development?: Findings from a study of Romanian adoptees. Developmental Psychology, 40, 81–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saltzman, K. M., Holden, G. W., & Holahan, C. J. (2005). The psychobiology of children exposed to marital violence. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 129–139.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schafer, J. L., & Graham, J W. (2002). Missing data: Our view of the state of the art. Psychological Methods, 7, 147–177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seeman, T. E., McEwen, B. S., Rowe, J. W., & Singer, B. H. (2001). Allostatic load as a marker of cumulative biological risk: MacArthur studies of successful aging. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 98, 4770–4775.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seeman, T. E., Singer, B. H., Rowe, J. W., Horwitz, R. I., & McEwen, B. S. (1997). Price of adaptation—Allostatic load and its health consequences. MacArthur studies of successful aging. Archives of Internal Medicine, 157, 2259–2268.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shirtcliff, E. A., & Essex, M. J. (2008). Concurrent and longitudinal associations of basal and diurnal cortisol with mental health symptoms in early adolescence. Developmental Psychobiology, 50, 690–703.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sobel, M. E. (1982). Asymptotic confidence intervals for indirect effects in structural equation models. In Leinhardt, S. (Ed.), Sociological methodology 1982 (pp. 290–312). Washington, DC: American Sociological Association.Google Scholar
Spangler, G., Schieche, M., Ilg, U., Maier, U., & Ackermann, C. (1994). Maternal sensitivity as an external organizer for biobehavioral regulation in infancy. Developmental Psychobiology, 27, 425–437.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sroufe, L. A. (2000). Early relationships and the development of children. Infant Mental Health Journal, 21, 67–74.3.0.CO;2-2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stevenson-Hinde, J. (1990). Attahment within family systems: An overview. Infant Mental Health Journal, 11, 218–227.3.0.CO;2-1>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stifter, C. A., & Braungart, J. M. (1995). The regulation of negative reactivity in infancy—Function and development. Developmental Psychology, 31, 448–455.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Boney-McCoy, S., & Sugarman, D. B (1996). Journal of Family Issues, 17, 283–316.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sturge-Apple, M. L., Davies, P. T., & Cummings, E. M. (2006). Hostility and withdrawal in marital conflict: Effects on parental emotional unavailability and inconsistent discipline. Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 227–238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Szyf, M., Weaver, I., & Meaney, M. (2007). Maternal care, the epigenome and phenotypic differences in behavior. Reproductive Toxicology, 24, 9–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van den Boom, D. C. (1994). The influence of temperament and mothering on attachment and exploration: An experimental manipulation. Child Development, 65, 1457–1477.Google ScholarPubMed
Williams, G. C. (1966). Adaptation and natural selection. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Zeanah, C. H., Boris, N. W., & Scheeringa, M. S. (1997). Psychopathology in infancy. Journal of Child Psychological Psychiatry, 38, 81–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed