Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-tf8b9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T21:02:40.252Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Coping in context: The effects of long-term relations between interparental conflict and coping on the development of child psychopathology following parental divorce

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 September 2019

Karey L. O'Hara ,
Irwin N. Sandler ,
Sharlene A. Wolchik  and
Jenn-Yun Tein
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Exposure to high levels of postdivorce interparental conflict is a well-documented risk factor for the development of psychopathology, and there is strong evidence of a subpopulation of families for which conflict persists for many years after divorce. However, existing studies have not elucidated differential trajectories of conflict within families over time, nor have they assessed the risk posed by conflict trajectories for development of psychopathology or evaluated potential protective effects of children's coping to mitigate such risk. We used growth mixture modeling to identify longitudinal trajectories of child-reported conflict over a period of six to eight years following divorce in a sample of 240 children. We related the trajectories to children's mental health problems, substance use, and risky sexual behaviors and assessed how children's coping prospectively predicted psychopathology in the different conflict trajectories. We identified three distinct trajectories of conflict; youth in two high-conflict trajectories showed deleterious effects on measures of psychopathology at baseline and the six-year follow-up. We found both main effects of coping and coping by conflict trajectory interaction effects in predicting problem outcomes at the six-year follow-up. The study supports the notion that improving youth's general capacity to cope adaptively is a potentially modifiable protective factor for all children facing parental divorce and that children in families with high levels of postdivorce conflict are a particularly appropriate group to target for coping-focused preventive interventions.

Keywords

child psychopathologycopingdivorceinterparental conflictprevention
Type
Special Issue Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 31 , Special Issue 5: Honoring the Contributions and Legacy of Thomas Dishion , December 2019 , pp. 1695 - 1713
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2019 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2001). Manual for the Achenbach system of empirically based assessment school-age forms profiles. Burlington, VT.Google Scholar
Aldao, A. (2013). The future of emotion regulation research: Capturing context. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8, 155–172. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612459518Google Scholar
Aldao, A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Schweizer, S. (2010). Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 217–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.004Google Scholar
Amato, P. R. (1993). Children's adjustment to divorce: Theories, hypotheses, and empirical support. Journal of Marriage and Family, 55, 23–38. https://doi.org/10.2307/352954Google Scholar
Amato, P. R. (2000). The consequences of divorce for adults and children. Journal of Marriage and Family, 62, 1269–1287.Google Scholar
Amato, P. R. (2001). Children of divorce in the 1990s: An update of the Amato and Keith (1991) meta-analysis. Journal of Family Psychology, 15, 355–370.Google Scholar
Amato, P. R., & Sobolewski, J. M. (2001). The effects of divorce and marital discord on adult children's psychological well-being. American Sociological Review, 66, 900–921. https://doi.org/10.2307/3088878Google Scholar
Andersson, G. (2002). Children's experience of family disruption and family formation: Evidence from 16 FFS countries. Demographic Research, 7, 343–364. https://doi.org/10.4054/DemRes.2002.7.7Google Scholar
Ayers, T. S., Sandler, I. N., & Twohey, J. L. (1998). Advances in clinical child psychology. New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Ayers, T. S., Sandler, I. N., West, S. G., & Roosa, M. W. (1996). A dispositional and situational assessment of children's coping: Testing alternative models of coping. Journal of Personality, 64, 923–958.Google Scholar
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY, US: W H Freeman/Times Books/ Henry Holt & Co.Google Scholar
Bauserman, R. (2012). A meta-analysis of parental satisfaction, adjustment, and conflict in joint custody and sole custody following divorce. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 53, 464–488. https://doi.org/10.1080/10502556.2012.682901Google Scholar
Bickham, N. L., & Fiese, B. H. (1997). Extension of the Children's Perceptions of Interparental Conflict Scale for use with late adolescents. Journal of Family Psychology, 11, 246–250.Google Scholar
Bickman, L., Lyon, A. R., & Wolpert, M. (2016). Achieving precision mental health through effective assessment, monitoring, and feedback processes: Introduction to the special issue. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 43, 271–276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-016-0718-5Google Scholar
Billings, A. G., & Moos, R. H. (1981). The role of coping responses and social resources in attenuating the stress of life events. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4, 139–157.Google Scholar
Bollen, K. A., & Jackman, R. W. (1985). Regression diagnostics: An expository treatment of outliers and influential cases. Sociological Methods & Research, 13, 510–542.Google Scholar
Boring, J. L., Sandler, I. N., Tein, J.-Y., Horan, J. J., & Vélez, C. E. (2015). Children of Divorce–Coping with Divorce: A randomized control trial of an online prevention program for youth experiencing parental divorce. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 83, 999–1005. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039567Google Scholar
Bradford, K., & Barber, B. K. (2005). Interparental conflict as intrusive family process. Journal of Emotional Abuse, 5, 143–167. https://doi.org/10.1300/J135v05n02_07Google Scholar
Buchanan, C. M., Maccoby, E. E., & Dornbusch, S. M. (1991). Caught between parents: Adolescents’ experience in divorced homes. Child Development, 62, 1008–1029.Google Scholar
Buehler, C., Anthony, C., Krishnakumar, A., Stone, G., Gerard, J., & Pemberton, S. (1997). Interparental conflict and youth problem behaviors: A meta-analysis. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 6, 233–247.Google Scholar
Camisasca, E., Miragoli, S., Di Blasio, P., & Grych, J. (2017). Children's coping strategies to inter-parental conflict: The moderating role of attachment. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26, 1099–1111. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0645-9Google Scholar
Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (2003). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences (3rd ed). Mahwah, N.J: L. Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Compas, B. E., Banez, G. A., Malcarne, V., & Worsham, N. (1991). Perceived control and coping with stress: A developmental perspective. Journal of Social Issues, 47, 23–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1991.tb01832.xGoogle Scholar
Compas, B. E., Connor-Smith, J. K., Saltzman, H., Thomsen, A. H., & Wadsworth, M. E. (2001). Coping with stress during childhood and adolescence: Problems, progress, and potential in theory and research. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 87–127. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-2909.127.1.87Google Scholar
Compas, B. E., Jaser, S. S., Bettis, A. H., Watson, K. H., Gruhn, M. A., Dunbar, J. P., … Thigpen, J. C. (2017). Coping, emotion regulation, and psychopathology in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analysis and narrative review. Psychological Bulletin, 143, 939–991. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000110Google Scholar
Connor-Smith, J. K., Compas, B. E., Wadsworth, M. E., Thomsen, A. H., & Saltzman, H. (2000). Responses to stress in adolescence: Measurement of coping and involuntary stress responses. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 976–992. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-006X.68.6.976Google Scholar
Cook, C. (1986). The Youth-Self-Report Hostility Scale. Unpublished manuscript, Program for Prevention Research, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ.Google Scholar
Cummings, E. M., & Davies, P. (2010). Marital conflict and children: An emotional security perspective. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Cummings, E. M., Davies, P., & Simpson, K. (1994). Marital conflict, gender, and children's appraisals and coping efficacy as mediators of child adjustment. Journal of Family Psychology, 8, 141–149. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.8.2.141Google Scholar
Cummings, E. M., George, M. R., McCoy, K. P., & Davies, P. T. (2012). Interparental conflict in kindergarten and adolescent adjustment: Prospective investigation of emotional security as an explanatory mechanism. Child Development, 83, 1703–1715.Google Scholar
Cummings, E. M., Schermerhorn, A. C., Davies, P. T., Goeke-Morey, M. C., & Cummings, J. S. (2006). Interparental discord and child adjustment: Prospective investigations of emotional security as an explanatory mechanism. Child Development, 77, 132–152.Google Scholar
Danese, A., & McEwen, B. S. (2012). Adverse childhood experiences, allostasis, allostatic load, and age-related disease. Physiology & Behavior, 106, 29–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.08.019Google Scholar
Davies, P. T., & Cummings, E. M. (1994). Marital conflict and child adjustment: An emotional security hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 387–411. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.116.3.387Google Scholar
Davies, P. T., Hentges, R. F., Coe, J. L., Martin, M. J., Sturge-Apple, M. L., & Cummings, E. M. (2016). The multiple faces of interparental conflict: Implications for cascades of children's insecurity and externalizing problems. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 125, 664–678. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000170Google Scholar
Fear, J. M., Champion, J. E., Reeslund, K. L., Forehand, R., Colletti, C., Roberts, L., & Compas, B. E. (2009). Parental depression and interparental conflict: Children and adolescents’ self-blame and coping responses. Journal of Family Psychology, 23, 762–766. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016381Google Scholar
Fischer, T., de Graaf, P., & Kalmijn, M. (2005). Friendly and antagonistic contact between former spouses after divorce: Patterns and determinants. Journal of Family Issues, 26, 1131–1163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X05275435Google Scholar
Forsythe, C. J., & Compas, B. E. (1987). Interaction of cognitive appraisals of stressful events and coping: Testing the goodness of fit hypothesis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 11, 473–485.Google Scholar
Fosco, G. M., & Grych, J. H. (2008). Emotional, cognitive, and family systems mediators of children's adjustment to interparental conflict. Journal of Family Psychology, 22, 843–854. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013809Google Scholar
Goeke-Morey, M. C., Cummings, E. M., & Papp, L. M. (2007). Children and marital conflict resolution: Implications for emotional security and adjustment. Journal of Family Psychology, 21, 744–753. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.21.4.744Google Scholar
Greenaway, K. H., Kalokerinos, E. K., & Williams, L. A. (2018). Context is everything (in emotion research). Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 0, e12393. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12393Google Scholar
Grimm, K., Ram, N., & Estabrook, R. (2017). Growth modeling: Structural equation and multilevel modeling approaches (pp. 603–637). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Grych, J. H. (2005). Interparental conflict as a risk factor for child maladjustment: Implications for the development of prevention programs. Family Court Review, 43, 97–108.Google Scholar
Grych, J. H., & Fincham, F. D. (1990). Marital conflict and children's adjustment: A cognitive-contextual framework. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 267–290. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.108.2.267Google Scholar
Grych, J. H., & Fincham, F. D. (1993). Children's appraisals of marital conflict: Initial investigations of the Cognitive-Contextual Framework. Child Development, 64, 215–230.Google Scholar
Grych, J. H., Fincham, F. D., Jouriles, E. N., & McDonald, R. (2000). Interparental conflict and child adjustment: Testing the mediational role of appraisals in the cognitive-contextual framework. Child Development, 71, 1648–1661. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00255Google Scholar
Grych, J. H., Harold, G. T., & Miles, C. J. (2003). A prospective investigation of appraisals as mediators of the link between interparental conflict and child adjustment. Child Development, 74, 1176–1193.Google Scholar
Grych, J. H., Seid, M., & Fincham, F. D. (1992). Assessing marital conflict from the child's perspective: The Children's Perception of Interparental Conflict Scale. Child Development, 63, 558–572.Google Scholar
Ha, A. P., Bergman, K. N., Davies, P. T., & Cummings, E. M. (2018). Parental postconflict explanations: Implications for children's adjustment outcomes. Family Court Review, 56, 219–233. https://doi.org/10.1111/fcre.12336Google Scholar
Hetherington, E. M., Cox, M., & Cox, R. (1982). Effects of divorce on parents and children. In Lamb, M. E. (Ed.), Nontraditional families: Parenting and child development (pp. 233–288). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Hetherington, E., & Kelly, J. (2002). Divorce reconsidered: For better or worse. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Jaser, S. S., Champion, J. E., Reeslund, K. L., Keller, G., Merchant, M. J., Benson, M., & Compas, B. E. (2007). Cross-situational coping with peer and family stressors in adolescent offspring of depressed parents. Journal of Adolescence, 30, 917–932. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2006.11.010Google Scholar
Jenkins, J. M., Smith, M. A., & Graham, P. J. (1989). Coping with parental quarrels. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 182–189.Google Scholar
Johnston, J. R. (1994). High-conflict divorce. The Future of Children, 4, 165. https://doi.org/10.2307/1602483Google Scholar
Johnston, L. D., Miech, R. A., O'Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., Schulenberg, J. E., & Patrick, M. E. (2018). Monitoring the Future national survey results on drug use, 1975-2017: Overview, key findings on adolescent drug use. Ann Arbor, MI: University of MIchigan, Institute for Social Research.Google Scholar
Kelly, J. B. (2012). Risk and protective factors associated with child adolescent adjustment following separation and divorce. In Kuehnle, K. & Drozd, L. (Eds.), Parenting plan evaluations: Applied research for the family court (pp. 49–84). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kelly, J. B., & Emery, R. E. (2003). Children's adjustment following divorce: Risk and resilience perspectives. Family Relations, 52, 352–362.Google Scholar
Kennedy, S., & Bumpass, L. (2008). Cohabitation and children's living arrangements: New estimates from the United States. Demographic Research, 19, 1663–1692.Google Scholar
Kenny, D., & Zautra, A. (2001). Trait-state models for longitudinal data. In Collins, L. M., & Sayer, A. G. (Eds.), New methods for the analysis of change (pp. 243–263). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10409-000Google Scholar
Kerig, P. K. (2001). Children's coping with interparental conflict. In Grych, J. H., & Fincham, F. D. (Eds.), Interparental conflict and child development: Theory, research, and applications (pp. 213–245). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
King, V., & Heard, H. E. (1999). Nonresident father visitation, parental conflict, and mother's satisfaction: What's best for child well-being? Journal of Marriage & Family, 61, 385–396. https://doi.org/10.2307/353756Google Scholar
Kline, M., Johnston, J. R., & Tschann, J. M. (1991). The long shadow of marital conflict: A model of children's postdivorce adjustment. Journal of Marriage and Family, 53, 297–309. https://doi.org/10.2307/352900Google Scholar
Kovacs, M. (1985). The Children's Depression, Inventory (CDI). Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 21, 995–998.Google Scholar
Lazarus, R., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1987). Transactional theory and research on emotions and coping. European Journal of Personality, 1, 141–169.Google Scholar
Lee, S. W., Piersel, W. C., Friedlander, R., & Collamer, W. (1988). Concurrent validity of the Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS) for adolescents. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 48, 429–433.Google Scholar
Lo, Y., Mendell, N. R., & Rubin, D. B. (2001). Testing the number of components in a normal mixture. Biometrika, 88, 767–778.Google Scholar
Long, N., Slater, E., Forehand, R., & Fauber, R. (1988). Continued high or reduced interparental conflict following divorce: Relation to young adolescent adjustment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 467.Google Scholar
Mahrer, N., O'Hara, K., Sandler, I., & Wolchik, S. (2018). Does shared parenting help or hurt children in high-conflict divorced families? Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 59, 324–347.Google Scholar
Mahrer, N., Sandler, I., Wolchik, S., Winslow, E., Moran, J., & Weinstock, D. (2016). How do parenting time and interparental conflict affect the relations of quality of parenting and child well-being following divorce? In Drozd, L., Saini, M., & Olesen, N. (Eds.), Parenting plan evaluations: Applied research for the family court (pp. 63–73). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
McLachlan, G., & Peel, D. (2000). Finite Mixture Models. Retrieved from https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Finite+Mixture+Models-p-9780471006268Google Scholar
Meyer, D. R., Cancian, M., & Cook, S. T. (2017). The growth in shared custody in the United States: Patterns and implications. Family Court Review, 55, 500–512.Google Scholar
Millsap, R. E., & Yun-Tein, J. (2004). Assessing factorial invariance in ordered-categorical measures. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39, 479–515.Google Scholar
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2017). Mplus User's Guide. Eighth Edition. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.Google Scholar
Nicolotti, L., El-Sheikh, M., & Whitson, S. M. (2003). Children's coping with marital conflict and their adjustment and physical health: Vulnerability and protective functions. Journal of Family Psychology, 17, 315–326. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.17.3.315Google Scholar
Nielsen, L. (2017). Re-examining the research on parental conflict, coparenting, and custody arrangements. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 23, 211–231. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000109Google Scholar
O'Brien, M., Bahadur, M. A., Gee, C., Balto, K., & Erber, S. (1997). Child exposure to marital conflict and child coping responses as predictors of child adjustment. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 21, 39–59.Google Scholar
Pedro-Carroll, J. (2005). Fostering resilience in the aftermath of divorce: The role of evidence-based programs for children. Family Court Review, 43, 52–64.Google Scholar
Pedro-Carroll, J. L., & Cowen, E. L. (1985). The Children of Divorce Intervention Program: An investigation of the efficacy of a school-based prevention program. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53, 603.Google Scholar
Pitts, S. C., West, S. G., & Tein, J.-Y. (1996). Longitudinal measurement models in evaluation research: Examining stability and change. Evaluation and Program Planning, 19, 333–350. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0149-7189(96)00027-4Google Scholar
Qu, L., Weston, R., Moloney, L., Kaspiew, R., & Dunstan, J. (2014). Post-separation parenting, property and relationship dynamics after five years. Canberra: Attorney-General's Department: Australian Institute of Family Studies.Google Scholar
Radovanovic, H. (1993). Parental conflict and children's coping styles in litigating separated families: Relationships with children's adjustment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 21, 697–713.Google Scholar
Reynolds, C. R. (1981). Long-term stability of scores on the Revised-Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 53, 702.Google Scholar
Reynolds, C. R., & Paget, K. D. (1981). Factor analysis of the revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale for blacks, whites, males, and females with a national normative sample. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 49, 352.Google Scholar
Reynolds, C. R., & Richmond, B. O. (1978). What I think and feel: A revised measure of children's manifest anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 6, 271–280. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00919131Google Scholar
Rhoades, K. A. (2008). Children's responses to interparental conflict: A meta-analysis of their associations with child adjustment. Child Development, 79, 1942–1956. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01235.xGoogle Scholar
Rowen, J., & Emery, R. (2018). Parental denigration: A form of conflict that typically backfires. Family Court Review, 56, 258–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/fcre.12339Google Scholar
Sacks, V., Murphy, D., & Moore, K. (2014). Adverse childhood experiences: National and state-level prevalence. Retrieved from http://www.childtrends.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Brief-adverse-childhood-experiences_FINAL.pdfGoogle Scholar
Sandler, I. N. (2001). Quality and ecology of adversity as common mechanisms of risk and resilience. American Journal of Community Psychology, 29, 19–61.Google Scholar
Sandler, I. N., Tein, J.-Y., Mehta, P., Wolchik, S., & Ayers, T. (2000). Coping efficacy and psychological problems of children of divorce. Child Development, 71, 1099–1118.Google Scholar
Sandler, I. N., Tein, J.-Y., & West, S. G. (1994). Coping, stress, and the psychological symptoms of children of divorce: A cross-sectional and longitudinal study. Child Development, 65, 1744–1763. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1994.tb00846.xGoogle Scholar
Saylor, C. F., Finch, A. J., Spirito, A., & Bennett, B. (1984). The Children's Depression Inventory: A systematic evaluation of psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52, 955.Google Scholar
Sbarra, D. A., & Emery, R. E. (2005). Coparenting conflict, nonacceptance, and depression among divorced adults: Results from a 12-year follow-up study of child custody mediation using multiple imputation. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 75, 63–75. https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.75.1.63Google Scholar
Schwarz, G. (1978). Estimating the dimension of a model. The Annals of Statistics, 6, 461–464.Google Scholar
Sclove, S. L. (1987). Application of model-selection criteria to some problems in multivariate analysis. Psychometrika, 52, 333–343.Google Scholar
Shaffer, D., Fisher, P., Lucas, C. P., Dulcan, M. K., & Schwab-Stone, M. E. (2000). NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children Version IV (NIMH DISC-IV): Description, differences from previous versions, and reliability of some common diagnoses. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 28–38.Google Scholar
Shaw, D. S., & Emery, R. E. (1987). Parental conflict and other correlates of the adjustment of school-age children whose parents have separated. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 15, 269–281. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00916354Google Scholar
Sheets, V., Sandler, I., & West, S. (1996). Appraisals of negative events by preadolescent children of divorce. Child Development, 67, 2166–2182.Google Scholar
Shelton, K. H., & Harold, G. T. (2007). Marital conflict and children's adjustment: The mediating and moderating role of children's coping strategies. Social Development, 16, 497–512. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00400.xGoogle Scholar
Shelton, K. H., & Harold, G. T. (2008). Pathways between interparental conflict and adolescent psychological adjustment: Bridging links through children's cognitive appraisals and coping strategies. Journal of Early Adolescence, 28, 555–582. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431608317610Google Scholar
Skinner, E., & Wellborn, J. (1994). Coping during childhood and adolescence: A motivational perspective. In Featherman, D. L., Lerner, R. M., & Perlmutter, M. (Eds.), Life-span development and behavior (pp. 91–133). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Smith, C, & Lazarus, R. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Smyth, B. M., & Moloney, L. J. (2017). Entrenched postseparation parenting disputes: The role of interparental hatred? Family Court Review, 55, 404–416.Google Scholar
Smyth, B. M., & Moloney, L. J. (2019). Post-separation parenting disputes and the many faces of high conflict: Theory and research. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy, 40, 74–84. https://doi.org/10.1002/anzf.1346Google Scholar
Tein, J.-Y., Coxe, S., & Cham, H. (2013). Statistical power to detect the correct number of classes in latent profile analysis. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 20, 640–657. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2013.824781Google Scholar
Timbremont, B., Braet, C., & Dreessen, L. (2004). Assessing depression in youth: Relation between the Children's Depression Inventory and a structured interview. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 149–157.Google Scholar
Tu, K. M., Erath, S. A., & El-Sheikh, M. (2016). Coping responses moderate prospective associations between marital conflict and youth adjustment. Journal of Family Psychology, 30, 523–532. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000169Google Scholar
US Census Bureau. (2018). America's families and living Arrangements: 2018. Retrieved December 17, 2018, from https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2018/demo/families/cps-2018.htmlGoogle Scholar
Vandewater, E. A., & Lansford, J. E. (1998). Influences of family structure and parental conflict on children's well-being. Family Relations, 47, 323–330.Google Scholar
Wadsworth, M. E. (2015). Development of maladaptive coping: A functional adaptation to chronic, uncontrollable stress. Child Development Perspectives, 9, 96–100. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12112Google Scholar
Wolchik, S. A., Sandler, I. N., Millsap, R. E., Plummer, B. A., Greene, S. M., Anderson, E. R., … Haine, R. A. (2002). Six-Year follow-up of preventive interventions for children of divorce: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 288, 1874–1881.Google Scholar
Wolchik, S., Sandler, I., Weiss, L., & Winslow, E. (2007). New Beginnings: An empirically-based intervention program for divorced mothers to help children adjust to divorce. In Briesmeister, J. M. & Schaefer, C. E. (Eds.), Handbook of parent training: Helping parents prevent and solve problem behaviors (pp. 25–66). Hoboken, N.J: Wiley.Google Scholar
Wolchik, S. A., West, S. G., Sandler, I. N., Tein, J.-Y., Coatsworth, D., Lengua, L., … Griffin, W. A. (2000). An experimental evaluation of theory-based mother and mother-child programs for children of divorce. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 843–856. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-006X.68.5.843Google Scholar