Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gxg78 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-28T19:47:08.560Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The neurophysiological embedding of child maltreatment

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 July 2020

Steven J. Holochwost Open the ORCID record for Steven J. Holochwost [Opens in a new window] ,
Guan Wang ,
Jacek Kolacz ,
W. Roger Mills-Koonce ,
J. Bart Klika  and
Sara R. Jaffee
Steven J. Holochwost*
Affiliation:
Palmer Wolf Corporation, 8A Francis Avenue, Cambridge, MA02138, USA Andrus, 1156 North Broadway, Yonkers, NY 10701, USA
Guan Wang
Affiliation:
School of Education, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, 301K Peabody Hall, CB 3500, Chapel Hill, NC27599-3500, USA
Jacek Kolacz
Affiliation:
Kinsey Institute, Indiana University, Lindley Hall, 150 South Woodlawn Avenue, Bloomington, IL47405, USA
W. Roger Mills-Koonce
Affiliation:
School of Education, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, 301K Peabody Hall, CB 3500, Chapel Hill, NC27599-3500, USA
J. Bart Klika
Affiliation:
Prevent Child Abuse America, 228 South Wabash Avenue, 10th Floor, Chicago, IL60604, USA
Sara R. Jaffee
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, 425 S. University Avenue, Philadelphia, PA19104, USA
*
Author for correspondence: Palmer Wolf Corporation, 8A Francis Avenue, Cambridge, MA02138, USA; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Maltreatment adversely impacts the development of children across a host of domains. One way in which maltreatment may exert its deleterious effects is by becoming embedded in the activity of neurophysiological systems that regulate metabolic function. This paper reviews the literature regarding the association between childhood maltreatment and the activity of three systems: the parasympathetic nervous system, the sympathetic nervous system, and the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis. A particular emphasis is placed on the extent to which the literature supports a common account of activity across these systems under conditions of homeostasis and stress. The paper concludes with an outline of directions for future research and the implications of the literature for policy and practice.

Keywords

autonomic nervous systemhypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axismaltreatmentneurophysiologycortisol
Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 33 , Issue 3 , August 2021 , pp. 1107 - 1137
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aas, M., Steen, N. E., Agartz, I., Aminoff, S. R., Lorentzen, S., Sundet, K., … Melle, I. (2012). Is cognitive impairment following early life stress in severe mental disorders based on specific or general cognitive functioning? Psychiatry Research, 198, 495–500. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2011.12.045CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Agnew-Blais, J., & Danese, A. (2016). Childhood maltreatment and unfavourable clinical outcomes in bipolar disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Psychiatry, 3, 342–349.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ainsworth, M. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Oxford, England: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Alink, L. R. A., Cicchetti, D., Kim, J., & Rogosch, F. A. (2012). Longitudinal associations among child maltreatment, social functioning, and cortisol regulation. Developmental Psychology, 48, 224–236. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0024892CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Angelakis, I., Gillepsie, E. L., & Panagioti, M. (2018). Childhood maltreatment and adult suicidality: A comprehensive systemic review with meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine, 49, 1–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291718003823.Google Scholar
Bassi, A., & Bozzali, M. (2015). Potential interactions between the autonomic nervous system and higher-level functions in neurological and neuropsychiatric conditions. Frontiers in Neurology, 6, 182. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2015.00182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bernard, K., Butzin-Dozier, Z., Rittenhouse, J., & Dozier, M. (2010). Cortisol production patterns in young children living with birth parents vs children placed in foster care following involvement of Child Protective Services. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 164, 438–443. doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2010.54CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bernstein, D. P., Fink, L., Handelsman, L., Foote, J., Lovejoy, M., Wenzel, K., … Ruggiero, J. (1994). Initial reliability and validity of a new retrospective measure of child abuse and neglect. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 1132–1136. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.151.8.1132Google ScholarPubMed
Bick, J., Nguyen, V., Leng, L., Piecychna, M., Crowley, M. J., Bucala, R., … Grigorenko, E. L. (2015). Preliminary associations between childhood neglect, MIF, and cortisol: Potential pathways to long-term disease risk. Developmental Psychobiology, 57, 131–139. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/dev.21265CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bifulco, A., Brown, G. W., & Harris, T. O. (1994). Childhood experiences of care and abuse (CECA): A retrospective interview measure. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35, 1419–1435.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bifulco, A., Brown, G. W., Lillie, A., & Jarvis, J. (1997). Memories of childhood neglect and abuse: Corroboration in a series of sisters. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38, 365–374.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blair, C., Granger, D. A., Willoughby, M., Mills-Koonce, R., Cox, M., Greenberg, M. T., … FLP Investigators. (2011). Salivary cortisol mediates effects of poverty and parenting on executive functions in early childhood. Child Development, 82, 1970–1984. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01643.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boparai, S. K. P., Au, V., Koita, K., Oh, D. L., Briner, S., Harris, N. B., & Bucci, M. (2018). Ameliorating the biological impacts of childhood adversity: A review of intervention programs. Child Abuse & Neglect, 81, 82–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.04.014CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bremner, J. D., Bolus, R., & Mayer, E. A. (2007). Psychometric properties of the early trauma inventory–self report. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 195, 211–218. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.nmd.0000243824.84651.6cCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bruce, J., Fisher, P. A., Pears, K. C., & Levine, S. (2009). Morning cortisol levels in preschool-aged foster children: Differential effects of maltreatment type. Developmental Psychobiology, 51, 14–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/dev.20333CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bugental, D. B., Martorell, G. A., & Barraza, V. (2003). The hormonal costs of subtle forms of infant maltreatment. Hormones and Behavior, 43, 237–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0018-506x(02)00008-9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buske-Kirschbaum, A., Jobst, S., Wustmans, A., Kirschbaum, C., Rauh, W., & Hellhammer, D. (1997). Attenuated free cortisol response to psychosocial stress in children with atopic dermatitis. Psychosomatic Medicine, 59, 419–426. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006842-199707000-00012CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carrey, N. J., Butter, H. J., Persinger, M. A., & Bialik, R. J. (1995). Physiological and cognitive correlates of child abuse. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 1067–1075. doi:10.1097/00004583-199508000-00017CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chalmers, J. A., Quintana, D. S., Abbott, M. J., & Kemp, A. H. (2014). Anxiety disorders are associated with reduced heart rate variability: A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 5, 80. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00080.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2001b). Diverse patterns of neuroendocrine activity in maltreated children. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 677–693.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. (2001a). The impact of child maltreatment and psychopathology on neuroendocrine functioning. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 783–804.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., Gunnar, M. R., & Toth, S. L. (2010). The differential impacts of early physical and sexual abuse and internalizing problems on daytime cortisol rhythm in school-aged children. Child Development, 81, 252–269. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01393.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Oshri, A. (2011). Interactive effects of corticotropin releasing hormone receptor 1, serotonin transporter linked polymorphic region, and child maltreatment on diurnal cortisol regulation and internalizing symptomatology. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 1125–1138. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0954579411000599CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Conradt, E., Measelle, J., & Ablow, J. C. (2013). Poverty, problem behavior, and promise: Differential susceptibility among infants reared in poverty. Psychological Science, 24, 235–242. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797612457381CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davies, P. T., Cummings, E. M., & Winter, M. A. (2004). Pathways between profiles of family functioning, child security in the interparental subsystem, and child psychological problems. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 525–550. doi:10.10170S0954579404004651CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeBellis, M. D. (2001). Developmental traumatology: The psychobiological development of maltreated children and its implications for research, treatment, and policy. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 539–564.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeBellis, M. D., Chrousos, G. P., Dorn, L. D., Burke, L., Helmers, K., Kling, M. A., … Putnam, F. W. (1994). Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis dysregulation in sexually abused girls. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 78, 249–255.Google Scholar
DeBellis, M. D., Hooper, S. R., Spratt, E. G., & Woolley, D. P. (2009). Neuropsychological findings in childhood neglect and their relationships to pediatric PTSD. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 15, 868–878. doi:10.1017/ S1355617709990464CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DePrince, A. P., Weinzierl, K. M., & Combs, M. D. (2009). Executive function performance and trauma exposure in a community sample of children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 33, 353–361. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2008.08.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Punder, K., Overfeld, J., Dörr, P., Dittrich, K., Winter, S. M., Kubiak, N., … Heim, C. (2016). Exposure to child maltreatment is associated with elevated stress and immune mediators in children aged 3–5 years. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 71, 39–40. 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.07.105CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doom, J. R., Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2014). Longitudinal patterns of cortisol regulation differ in maltreated and nonmaltreated children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 53, 1206–1215. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2014.08.006CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doom, J. R., Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Dackis, M. N. (2013). Child maltreatment and gender interactions as predictors of differential neuroendocrine profiles. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 38, 1442–1454. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.12.019CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
do Prado, C. H., Grassi-Oliveira, R., Daruy-Filho, L., Wieck, A., & Bauer, M. E. (2017). Evidence for immune activation and resistance to glucocorticoids following childhood maltreatment in adolescents without psychopathology. Neuropsychopharmacology, 42, 2272–2282. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/npp.2017.137CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duval, F., Crocq, M. A., Guillon, M. S., Mokrani, M. C., Monreal, J., Bailey, P., & Macher, J. P. (2004). Increased adrenocorticotropin suppression following dexamethasone administration in sexually abused adolescents with posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 29, 1281–1289.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ford, J. D., Fraleigh, L. A., Albert, D. B., & Connor, D. F. (2010). Child abuse and autonomic nervous system hyporesponsivity among psychiatrically impaired children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34, 507–515. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2009.11.005CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Forte, G., Favieri, F., & Casagrande, M. (2019). Heart rate variability and cognitive function: A systematic review. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 13, 710. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2019.00710.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gerra, G., Zaimovic, A., Castaldini, L., Garofano, L., Manfredini, M., Somaini, L., … Donnini, C. (2010). Relevance of perceived childhood neglect, 5-HTT gene variants and hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis dysregulation to substance abuse susceptibility. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 153B, 715–722. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.b.31038Google ScholarPubMed
Goenjian, A. K., Najarian, L. M., Pynoos, R. S., Steinberg, A. M., Manoukian, G., Tavosian, A., & Fairbanks, L. A. (1994). Posttraumatic stress disorder in elderly and younger adults after the 1988 earthquake in Armenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 895–901. doi: 10.1176/ajp.151.6.895Google ScholarPubMed
Gökler, B., Ünal, F., Pehlivantürk, B., Çengel Kültür, E., Devrim Akdemir, D., & Taner, Y. (2004). Reliability and validity of schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia for school age children, present and lifetime version-Turkish version (K-SADS-PL-T). Çocuk ve Gençlik Ruh Sagligi Dergisi, 11, 109–116.Google Scholar
Gooding, H. C., Milliren, C. E., Austin, S. B., Sheridan, M. A., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2016). Child abuse, resting blood pressure, and blood pressure reactivity to psychosocial stress. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 41, 5–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsv040CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gordis, E. B., Feres, N., Olezeski, C. L., Rabkin, A. N., & Trickett, P. K. (2010). Skin conductance reactivity and respiratory sinus arrhythmia among maltreated and comparison youth: Relations with aggressive behavior. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 35, 547–558. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsp113CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gordis, E. B., Granger, D. A., Susman, E. J., & Trickett, P. K. (2008). Salivary alpha amylase-cortisol asymmetry in maltreated youth. Hormones and Behavior, 53, 96–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2007.09.002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grassi-Oliveira, R., Cogo-Moreira, H., Salum, G. A., Brietzke, E., Viola, T. W., Manfro, G. G., … Arteche, A. X. (2014). Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) in Brazilian samples of different age groups: Findings from confirmatory factor analysis. PloS one, 9, e87118. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0087118CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Groh, E. M. G. (2010). Die psychische Belastung bei Pflegekindern: Vorhersage ihrer posttraumatischen Symptomatik und Adaption eines neuen Instruments zur Erfassung ihrer allgemeinen psychischen Belastung (Doctoral dissertation, LMU Munich).Google Scholar
Gunnar, M. R. (1992). Reactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocorticoid system to stressors in normal infants and children. Pediatrics, 90, 491–497.Google ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R., Morison, S. J., Chisholm, K., & Schuder, M. (2001). Salivary cortisol levels in children adopted from Romanian orphanages. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 611–628. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S095457940100311XCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M., & Quevedo, K. (2007). The Neurobiology of stress and development. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 145–173. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085605CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harkness, K. L., Stewart, J. G., & Wynne-Edwards, K. E. (2011). Cortisol reactivity to social stress in adolescents: Role of depression severity and child maltreatment. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 36, 173–181. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.07.006CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hart, J., Gunnar, M., & Cicchetti, D. (1995). Salivary cortisol in maltreated children: Evidence of relations between neuroendocrine activity and social competence. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 11–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hart, J., Gunnar, M., & Cicchetti, D. (1996). Altered neuroendocrine activity in maltreated children related to symptoms of depression. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 201–214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heim, C., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2001). The role of childhood trauma in the neurobiology of mood and anxiety disorders: Preclinical and clinical studies. Biological Psychiatry, 49, 1023–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hertzman, C. (1999). The biological embedding of early experience and its effects on health in adulthood. In Adler, N. E., Marmot, M., McEwen, B. S., Stewart, J., Adler, N. E., Marmot, M. & Stewart, J. (Eds.), Socioeconomic status and health in industrial nations: Social, psychological, and biological pathways (pp. 85–95). New York, NY: New York Academy of Sciences.Google Scholar
Hoffman, C., Crnic, K. A., & Baker, J. K. (2006). Maternal depression and parenting: Implications for children's emergent emotion regulation and behavioral functioning. Parenting: Science and Practice, 6, 271–295. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327922par0604_1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holochwost, S. J., Kolacz, J., & Mills-Koonce, W. R. (Under review). Towards an understanding of neurophysiological self-regulation in early childhood.Google Scholar
Jackson, J. H. (1958). Evolution and dissolution of the nervous system. In Taylor, J. (Ed.), Selected Writings of John Hughlings Jackson (pp. 45–118). London: Staples Press.Google Scholar
Jackson, S. E., Kirschbaum, C., & Steptoe, A. (2017). Hair cortisol and adiposity in a population-based sample of 2,527 men and women aged 54 to 87 years. Obesity, 25, 539–544. https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.21733.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jaffee, S. J., Ambler, A., Merrick, M., Goldman-Mellor, S., Odgers, C. L., Fisher, H. L., … Arseneault, L. (2018). Childhood maltreatment predicts poor economic and educational outcomes in the transition to adulthood. American Journal of Public Health, 108, 1142–1147. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2018.304587CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaess, M., Parzer, P., Mattern, M., Resch, F., Bifulco, A., & Brunner, R. (2011). Childhood Experiences of Care and Abuse (CECA): Validation of the German version and results of investigation of correlations between adverse childhood experiences and suicidal behaviour. Zeitschrift für Kinder-und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie, 39, 243–252. https://doi.org/10.1024/1422-4917/a000115CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaess, M., Whittle, S., O'Brien-Simpson, L., Allen, N. B., & Simmons, J. G. (2018). Childhood maltreatment, pituitary volume and adolescent hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis—Evidence for a maltreatment-related attenuation. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 98, 39–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.08.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaess, M., Whittle, S., Simmons, J. G., Jovev, M., Allen, N. B., & Chanen, A. M. (2017). The interaction of childhood maltreatment, sex, and borderline personality features in the prediction of the cortisol awakening response in adolescents. Psychopathology, 50, 188–194. https://doi.org/10.1159/000456549CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karanikas, E., Antoniadis, D., & Garyfallos, G. D. (2014). The role of cortisol in first episode of psychosis: A systematic review. Current Psychiatry Reports, 16, 503. doi:10.1007/s11920-014-0503-7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karlén, J., Ludvigsson, J., Frostell, A., Theodorsson, E., & Faresjö, T. (2011). Cortisol in hair measured in young adults - a biomarker of major life stressors? BMC Clinical Pathology, 11, 12. doi:10.1186/1472-6890-11-12CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaufman, J., Birmaher, B., Perel, J., Dahl, R. E., Moreci, P., Nelson, B., … Ryan, N. D. (1997). The corticotropin-releasing hormone challenge in depressed abused, depressed nonabused, and normal control children. Biological Psychiatry, 42, 669–679.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keeshin, B. R., Strawn, J. R., Out, D., Granger, D. A., & Putnam, F. W. (2014). Cortisol awakening response in adolescents with acute sexual abuse related posttraumatic stress disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 31, 107–114. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22154CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keeshin, B. R., Strawn, J. R., Out, D., Granger, D. A., & Putnam, F. W. (2015). Elevated salivary alpha amylase in adolescent sexual abuse survivors with posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 25, 344–350. https://doi.org/10.1089/cap.2014.0034CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kemp, A. H., Quintana, D. S., Gray, M. A., Felmingham, K. L., Brown, K., & Gatt, J. M. (2010). Impact of depression and antidepressant treatment on heart rate variability: A review and meta-analysis. Biological Psychiatry, 67, 1067–1074. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.12.012CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kertes, D. A., Gunnar, M. R., Madsen, N. J., & Long, J. D. (2008). Early deprivation and home basal cortisol levels: A study of internationally adopted children. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 473–491. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579408000230CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kessler, R. C., Davis, C. G., & Kendler, K. S. (1997). Childhood adversity and adult psychiatric disorder in the US National Comorbidity Survey. Psychological Medicine, 27, 1101–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
King, J. A., Mandansky, D., King, S., Fletcher, K., & Brewer, J. (2001). Early sexual abuse and low cortisol. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 55, 71–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirschbaum, C., Pirke, K. M., & Hellhammer, D. H. (1993). The ‘Trier Social Stress Test’ – A tool for investigating psychobiological stress responses in a laboratory setting. Neuropsychobiology, 28, 76–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000119004CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klanecky, A., McChargue, D. E., & Bruggeman, L. (2012). Desire to dissociate: Implications for problematic drinking in college students with childhood or adolescent sexual abuse exposure. The American Journal on Addictions, 21, 250–256. doi:10.1111/j.1521-0391.2012.00228.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klika, B., Lee, S. J., & Lee, J. Y. (2018). Prevention of child maltreatment. In Klika, B. & Conte, J. (Eds.), In American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children handbook on child maltreatment. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Knorr, U., Vinberg, M., Kessing, L. V., & Wetterslev, J. (2010). Salivary cortisol in depressed patients versus control persons: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35, 1275–1286. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.04.001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kočovská, E., Wilson, P., Young, D., Wallace, A. M., Gorski, C., Follan, M., … Minnis, H. (2013). Cortisol secretion in children with symptoms of reactive attachment disorder. Psychiatry Research, 209, 74–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2012.12.011CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koenig, J., Kemp, A. H., Beauchaine, T. P., Thayer, J. F., & Kaess, M. (2016). Depression and resting state heart rate variability in children and adolescents—a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 46, 136–150. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2017.00582CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kolacz, J., Kovacic, K. K., & Porges, S. W. (2019). Traumatic stress and the autonomic brain-gut connection in development: Polyvagal Theory as an integrative framework for psychosocial and gastrointestinal pathology. Developmental Psychobiology, 61, 796–809. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.21852Google ScholarPubMed
Kolacz, J., & Porges, S. W. (2018). Chronic diffuse pain and functional gastrointestinal disorders after traumatic stress: Pathophysiology through a polyvagal perspective. Frontiers in Medicine, 5, 145. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2018.00145.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koopman, C., Carrion, V., Butler, L. D., Sudhakar, S., Palmer, L., & Steiner, H. (2004). Relationships of dissociation and childhood abuse and neglect with heart rate in delinquent adolescents. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17, 47–54. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOTS.0000014676.83722.35CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuhlman, K. R., Geiss, E. G., Vargas, I., & Lopez-Duran, N. L. (2015). Differential associations between childhood trauma subtypes and adolescent HPA axis functioning. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 54, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.01.020CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lang, C. M., & Sharma-Patel, K. (2011). The relation between childhood maltreatment and self-injury: A review of the literature on conceptualization and intervention. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 12, 23–27. doi:10.1177/1524838010386975CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Larkin, C., Di Blasi, Z., & Arensman, E. (2014). Risk factors for repetition of self-harm: A systematic review of prospective hospital-based studies. PLoS ONE, 9, e84282. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0084282CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laurent, H. K., Gilliam, K. S., Wright, D. B., & Fisher, P. A. (2015). Child anxiety symptoms related to longitudinal cortisol trajectories and acute stress responses: Evidence of developmental stress sensitization. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 124, 68–79. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000009CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, B. K., Glass, T. A., McAtee, M. J., Wand, G. S., Bandeen-Roche, K., Bolla, K. I., & Schwartz, B. S. (2007). Associations of salivary cortisol with cognitive function in the Baltimore Memory Study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 810–818. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.64.7.810CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leeb, R. T., Paulozzi, L., Melanson, C., Simon, T., & Arias, I. (2008). Child maltreatment surveillance: Uniform definitions for public health and recommended data elements, version 1.0. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control.Google Scholar
Leitzke, B. T., Hilt, L. M., & Pollak, S. D. (2015). Maltreated youth display a blunted blood pressure response to an acute interpersonal stressor. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 44, 305–313. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2013.848774CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Linares, L. O., Shrout, P. E., Nucci-Sack, A., & Diaz, A. (2013). Child maltreatment, dating perpetration of physical assault, and cortisol reactivity among disadvantaged female adolescents. Neuroendocrinology, 97, 252–259. https://doi.org/10.1159/000342958CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lukens, E., Puigantich, J., Behn, J., Goetz, R., Tabrizi, M., & Davies, M. (1983). Reliability of the psychosocial schedule for school age children. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 22, 29–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lunkenheimer, E., Busuito, A., Brown, K. M., & Skowron, E. A. (2018). Mother-Child coregulation of parasympathetic processes differs by child maltreatment severity and subtype. Child Maltreatment, 23, 211–220. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559517751672CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lupien, S. J., King, S., Meaney, M. J., & McEwen, B. S. (2001). Can poverty get under your skin? Basal cortisol levels and cognitive function in children from low and high socioeconomic status. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 653–676. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0954579401003133CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacMillan, H. L., Georgiades, K., Duku, E. K., Shea, A., Steiner, M., & Schmidt, L. A. (2009). Cortisol response to stress in female youths exposed to childhood maltreatment: Results of the Youth Mood Project. Biological Psychiatry, 66, 62–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.12.014CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Madruga, C. S., Laranjeira, R., Caetano, R., Ribeiro, W., Zaleski, M., Pinsky, I., & Ferri, C. P. (2011). Early life exposure to violence and substance misuse in adulthood-the first Brazilian national survey. Addictive Behaviors, 36, 251–255. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2010.10.011CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Majer, M., Nater, U. M., Lin, J. M., Capuron, L., & Reeves, W. C. (2010). Association of childhood trauma with cognitive function in healthy adults: A pilot study. BMC Neurology, 10, 61. doi:10.1186/1471-2377-10-61CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Margolin, G., John, R. S., & Foo, L. (1998). Interactive and unique risk factors for husbands’ emotional and physical abuse of their wives. Journal of Family Violence, 13, 315–344.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McEwen, B. S. (2005). Stressed or stressed-out: What is the difference? Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience, 30, 315–318.Google ScholarPubMed
McLaughlin, K. A., Sheridan, M. A., Alves, S., & Mendes, W. B. (2014a). Child maltreatment and autonomic nervous system reactivity: Identifying dysregulated stress reactivity patterns using the biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat. Psychosomatic Medicine, 76, 538–546. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000098CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLaughlin, K. A., Sheridan, M. A., & Lambert, H. K. (2014b). Childhood adversity and neural development: Deprivation and threat as distinct dimensions of early experience. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 47, 578–591.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLaughlin, K. A., Sheridan, M. A., Tibu, F., Fox, N. A., Zeanah, C. H., & Nelson, C. A. III. (2015). Causal effects of the early caregiving environment on development of stress response systems in children. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 112, 5637–5642. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1423363112CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Melby, J. N., & Conger, R. D. (2001). The Iowa Family Interaction Rating Scales: Instrument summary. In Kerig, P. K. & Lindahl, K. M. (Eds.), Family observational coding systems: Resources for systemic research (pp. 33–58). Philadelphia, PA: Brunner/Mazel.Google Scholar
Miller, G. E., Chen, E., & Parker, K. J. (2011). Psychological stress in childhood and susceptibility to the chronic diseases of aging: Moving toward a model of behavioral and biological mechanisms. Psychological Bulletin, 137, 959–997.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, G. E., Chen, E., & Zhou, E. S. (2007). If it goes up, must it come down? Chronic stress and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis in humans. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 25–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miskovic, V., Schmidt, L. A., Georgiades, K., Boyle, M., & MacMillan, H. L. (2009). Stability of resting frontal electroencephalogram (EEG) asymmetry and cardiac vagal tone in adolescent females exposed to child maltreatment. Developmental Psychobiology, 51, 474–487. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.20387CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morrison, A, Polisena, J, Husereau, D, Moulton, K, & Clark, M. (2012). The effect of English-language restriction on systematic review-based meta-analyses: a systematic review of empirical studies. International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care, 28, 138–144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Munck, A., Guyre, P. M., & Hollbrook, N. J. (1984). Physiological functions of glucocorticoids in stress and their relation to pharmacological actions. Endocrinology Review, 5, 25–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Munck, A., & Náray-Fejes-Tóth, A. (1995). Glucocorticoid action. Physiology. In DeGroot, L. J. (Ed.), Endocrinology (pp. 1642–1656). Philadelphia: Saunders.Google Scholar
Nanni, V., Uher, R., & Danese, A. (2012). Childhood maltreatment predicts unfavorable course of illness and treatment outcome in depression: A meta-analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 141–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2005). Excessive stress disrupts the architecture of the developing brain. (Working paper #3). Retrieved from http://www.developingchild.netGoogle Scholar
Navalta, C. P., Polcari, A., Webster, D. M., Boghossian, A., & Teicher, M. H. (2006). Effects of childhood sexual abuse on neuropsychological and cognitive function in college women. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 18, 45–53. doi:10.1176/ appi.neuropsych.18.1.45CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Negriff, S., Saxbe, D. E., & Trickett, P. K. (2015). Childhood maltreatment, pubertal development, HPA axis functioning, and psychosocial outcomes: An integrative biopsychosocial model. Developmental Psychobiology, 57, 984–993. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.21340CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nolin, P., & Ethier, L. (2007). Using neuropsychological profiles to classify neglected children with or without physical abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31, 631–643. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2006.12.009CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Connor, D. B., Ferguson, E., Green, J. A., O'Carroll, R. E., & O'Connor, R. C. (2016). Cortisol levels and suicidal behavior: A meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 63, 370–379. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.10.011CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oosterman, M., De Schipper, J. C., Fisher, P., Dozier, M., & Schuengel, C. (2010). Autonomic reactivity in relation to attachment and early adversity among foster children. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 109–118. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579409990290CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peckins, M. K., Susman, E. J., Negriff, S., Noll, J., & Trickett, P. K. (2015). Cortisol profiles: A test for adaptive calibration of the stress response system in maltreated and nonmaltreated youth. Development and Psychopathology, 27, 1461–1470. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579415000875CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perez, C. M., & Widom, C. S. (1994). Childhood victimization and long-term intellectual and academic outcomes. Child Abuse & Neglect, 18, 617–633.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pollak, S. D., Nelson, C. A., Schlaak, M. F., Roeber, B. J., Wewerka, S. S., Wiik, K. L., … Gunnar, M. R. (2010). Neurodevelopmental effects of early deprivation in postinstitutionalized children. Child Development, 81, 224–236. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01391.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pollak, S. D., Vardi, S., Bechner, A. M. P., & Curtin, J. J. (2005). Physically abused children's regulation of attention in response to hostility. Child Development, 76, 968–977.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Porges, S. W. (1992). Vagal tone: A physiologic marker of stress vulnerability. Pediatrics, 90, 498–504.Google ScholarPubMed
Porter, C., Lawson, J. S., & Bigler, E. D. (2005). Neurobehavioral sequelae of child sexual abuse. Child Neuropsychology, 11, 203–220. doi:10.1080/092970490911379CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pruessner, J. C., Wolf, O., Hellhammer, D., Buske-Kirschbaum, A., von Auer, K., Jobst, S., … Kirschbaum, C. (1997). Free cortisol levels after awakening: A reliable marker for the assessment of adrenocortical activity. Life Sciences, 61, 2539–2549. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0024-3205(97)01008-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Puetz, V. B., Zweerings, J., Dahmen, B., Ruf, C., Scharke, W., Herpertz-Dahlmann, B., & Konrad, K. (2016). Multidimensional assessment of neuroendocrine and psychopathological profiles in maltreated youth. Journal of Neural Transmission, 123, 1095–1106. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-016-1509-6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Puig-Antich, J., Lukens, E., Davies, M., Goetz, D., Brennan-Quattrock, J., & Todak, G. (1985a). Psychosocial functioning in prepubertal major depressive disorders: I. Interpersonal relationships during the depressive episode. Archives of General Psychiatry, 42, 500–507. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1985.01790280082008CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Puig-Antich, J., Lukens, E., Davies, M., Goetz, D., Brennan-Quattrock, J., & Todak, G. (1985b). Psychosocial functioning in prepubertal major depressive disorders: II. Interpersonal relationships during the depressive episode. Archives of General Psychiatry, 42, 500–507. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1985.01790280093010CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Putnam, F. W. (1993). Dissociative disorders in children: Behavioral profiles and problems. Child Abuse and Neglect, 17, 39–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/0145-2134(93)90006-qCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Quevedo, K., Doty, J., Roos, L., & Anker, J. J. (2017). The cortisol awakening response and anterior cingulate cortex function in maltreated depressed versus non-maltreated depressed youth. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 86, 87–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.09.001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reese-Weber, M. (2008). A new experimental method assessing attitudes toward adolescent dating and sibling violence using observations of violent interactions. Journal of Adolescence, 31, 857–876.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rinnewitz, L., Koenig, J., Parzer, P., Brunner, R., Resch, F., & Kaess, M. (2018). Childhood adversity and psychophysiological reactivity to pain in adolescent nonsuicidal self-injury. Psychopathology, 51, 346–354. https://doi.org/10.1159/000491702CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rogosch, F. A., Dackis, M. N., & Cicchetti, D. (2011). Child maltreatment and allostatic load: Consequences for physical and mental health in children from low-income families. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 1107–1124.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosmalen, J. G., Oldehinkel, A. J., Ormel, J., de Winter, A. F., Buitelaar, J. K., & Verhulst, F. C. (2005). Determinants of salivary cortisol levels in 10–12 year old children; a population-based study of individual differences. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30, 483–495.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sapolsky, R. M., Krey, L. C., & McEwen, B. S. (1986). The neuroendocrinology of stress and aging: The gluco-corticoid cascade hypothesis. Endocrine Reviews, 7, 284–301. https://doi.org/10.1210/edrv-7-3-284CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sapolsky, R. M., Romero, L. M., & Munck, A. U. (2000). How do glucocorticoids influence stress responses? Integrating permissive, suppressive, stimulatory, and preparative actions. Endocrine Reviews, 21, 55–89. https://doi.org/10.1210/edrv.21.1.0389Google ScholarPubMed
Saxbe, D. E., Margolin, G., Spies Shapiro, L. A., & Baucom, B. R. (2012). Does dampened physiological reactivity protect youth in aggressive family environments? Child Development, 83, 821–830. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01752.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schulz, P, Kirschbaum, C, Pruessner, J, & Hellhammer, D. (1988). Increased free cortisol secretion after awakening in chronically stressed individuals due to work overload. Stress Medicine, 14, 91–97.3.0.CO;2-S>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schulz, P, Kirschbaum, C, Pruessner, J, & Hellhammer, D. (1998). Increased free cortisol secretion after awakening in chronically stressed individuals due to work overload. Stress Medicine, 14, 91–97.3.0.CO;2-S>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwabe, L., Haddad, L., & Schachinger, H. (2008). HPA axis activation by a socially evaluated cold-pressor test. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 33, 890–895. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.03.001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seyle, H. (1950). The Physiology and pathology of exposure to stress: A Treatise based on the concepts of the general-adaptation-syndrome and the diseases of adaptation. Montreal: Acta.Google Scholar
Shalev, I., Moffitt, T. E., Sugden, K., Williams, B., Houts, R. M., Danaese, A., … Caspi, A. (2012). Exposure to violence during childhood is associated with telomere erosion from 5 to 10 years of age: A longitudinal study. Molecular Psychiatry, 18, 576–581. doi: 10.1038/mp.2012;.32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shamseer, L., Moher, D., Clarke, M., Ghersi, D., Liberati, A., Petticre, M., … Stewart, L. A. (2015). Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (PRISMA-P) 2015: Elaboration and explanation. Research Methods & Reporting, 349, g7647. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.g.7647.Google Scholar
Shenk, C. E., Noll, J. G., Putnam, F. W., & Trickett, P. K. (2010). A prospective examination of the role of childhood sexual abuse and physiological asymmetry in the development of psychopathology. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34, 752–761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2010.02.010CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shenk, C. E., Putnam, F. W., & Noll, J. G. (2012). Experiential avoidance and the relationship between child maltreatment and PTSD symptoms: Preliminary evidence. Child Abuse & Neglect, 36, 118–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.09.012CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Siddaway, A. P., Wood, A. M., & Hedges, L. V. (2019). How to do a systematic review: A best practice guide for conducting and reporting narrative reviews, meta-analyses, and meta-syntheses. Annual Review of Psychology, 70, 747–770. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-102803CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Şimşek, Ş, Yüksel, T., Kaplan, İ, Uysal, C., & Alaca, R. (2015). Examining the levels of BDNF and cortisol in children and adolescent victims of sexual abuse – A preliminary study. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 61, 23–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2015.04.013CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sinha, R. (2008). Chronic stress, drug use, and vulnerability to addiction. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1141, 105–130. doi:10.1196/annals.1441.030CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skowron, E. A., Cipriano-Essel, E., Gatzke-Kopp, L. M., Teti, D. M., & Ammerman, R. T. (2014). Early adversity, RSA, and inhibitory control: Evidence of children's neurobiological sensitivity to social context. Developmental Psychobiology, 56, 964–978. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.21175CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skowron, E. A., Loken, E., Gatzke-Kopp, L. M., Cipriano-Essel, E. A., Woehrle, P. L., Van Epps, J. J., … Ammerman, R. T. (2011). Mapping cardiac physiology and parenting processes in maltreating mother–child dyads. Journal of Family Psychology, 25, 663–674. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024528CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Slopen, N., McLaughlin, K. A., & Shonkoff, J. P. (2014). Interventions to improve cortisol regulation in children: A systematic review. Pediatrics, 133, 312–326. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2013-1632CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Straus, M. A. (1979). Measuring intrafamily conflict and violence: The Conflict Tactics Scale. Journal of Marriage and Family, 41, 75–88. https://doi.org/10.2307/351733CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Finkelhor, D., Moore, D. W., & Runyan, D. (1998). Identification of child maltreatment with the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scales: Development and psychometric data for a national sample of American parents. Child Abuse & Neglect, 22, 249–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0145-2134(97)00174-9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sturge-Apple, M. L., Davies, P. T., Cicchetti, D., & Manning, L. G. (2012). Interparental violence, maternal emotional unavailability and children's cortisol functioning in family contexts. Developmental Psychology, 48, 237–249. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025419CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sullivan, M. W., Bennett, D. S., & Lewis, M. (2013). Individual differences in the cortisol responses of neglected and comparison children. Child Maltreatment, 18, 8–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559512449378CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sumner, J. A., McLaughlin, K. A., Walsh, K., Sheridan, M. A., & Koenen, K. C. (2014). CRHR1 genotype and history of maltreatment predict cortisol reactivity to stress in adolescents. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 43, 71–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.02.002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suor, J. H., Sturge-Apple, M. L., Davies, P. T., Cicchetti, D., & Manning, L. G. (2015). Tracing differential pathways of risk: Associations among family adversity, cortisol, and cognitive functioning in childhood. Child Development, 86, 1142–1158. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12376CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trickett, P. K., Gordis, E., Peckins, M. K., & Susman, E. J. (2014). Stress reactivity in maltreated and comparison male and female young adolescents. Child Maltreatment, 19, 27–37. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559513520466CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trickett, P. K., Noll, J. G., Susman, E. J., Shenk, C. E., & Putnam, F. W. (2010). Attenuation of cortisol across development for victims of sexual abuse. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 165–175. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579409990332CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tyrka, A. R., Price, L. H., Kao, H. T., Porton, B., Marsella, S. A., & Carpenter, L. L. (2010). Childhood maltreatment and telomere shortening: Preliminary support for an effect of early stress on cellular aging. Biological Psychiatry, 67, 531–534.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
US Department of Health & Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Children's Bureau. (2017). Child Maltreatment 2015. Available from http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/cb/research-data-technology/statistics-research/child-maltreatmentGoogle Scholar
Usta, M. B., Tuncel, O. K., Akbas, S., Aydin, B., & Say, G. N. (2016). Decreased dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate levels in adolescents with post-traumatic stress disorder after single sexual trauma. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 70, 116–120. https://doi.org/10.3109/08039488.2015.1056752CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Varese, F., Smeets, F., Drukker, M., Lieverse, R., Lataster, T., Viechtbauer, W., … Bentall, R. P. (2012). Childhood adversities increase the risk of psychosis: A meta-analysis of patient-control, prospective- and cross-sectional cohort studies. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 38, 661–671.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Veldhorst, M. A. B., Noppe, G., Jongejan, M. H. T. M., Kok, C. B. M., Mekic, S., Koper, J. W., … van den Akker, E. L. T. (2014). Increased scalp hair cortisol concentrations in obese children. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 99, 285–290. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2013-2924CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vreeburg, S. A., Hoogendijk, W. J., van Pelt, J., DeRijk, R. H., Verhagen, J. C., van Dyck, R., … Penninx, B. W. (2009). Major depressive disorder and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity: Results from a large cohort study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 66, 617–626. doi: 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.50CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wagner, S. L., Cepeda, I., Krieger, D., Maggi, S., D'Angiulli, A., Weinberg, J., & Grunau, R. E. (2016). Higher cortisol is associated with poorer executive functioning in preschool children: The role of parenting stress, parent coping and quality of daycare. Child Neuropsychology, 22, 853–869. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2015.1080232CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watson, S., Gallagher, P., Ritchie, J. C., Ferrier, I. N., & Young, A. H. (2004). Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis function in patients with bipolar disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 184, 496–502. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.184.6.496CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
White, L. O., Ising, M., Klitzing, K., Sierau, S., Michel, A., Klein, A. M., … Stalder, T. (2017). Reduced hair cortisol after maltreatment mediates externalizing symptoms in middle childhood and adolescence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 58, 998–1007. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12700CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Widom, C. S. (1999). Posttraumatic stress disorder in abused and neglected children grown up. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 1223–1229.Google ScholarPubMed
Wiegers, G. J., & Reul, J. M. H. M. (1998). Induction of cytokine receptors by glucocorticoids: Functional and pathological significance. Trends in the Pharmacological Sciences, 19, 317–321. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0165-6147(98)01229-2CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wismer Fries, A. B., Shirtcliff, E. A., & Pollak, S. D. (2008). Neuroendocrine dysregulation following early social deprivation in children. Developmental Psychobiology, 50, 588–599. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.20319CrossRefGoogle Scholar
World Health Organization. (2017). Child Maltreatment Fact Sheet. Available from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs150/en/Google Scholar