Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-r5fsc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-28T08:38:52.114Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Exposure to early childhood maltreatment and its effect over time on social cognition

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 October 2020

Katherine M. Crawford ,
Karmel Choi ,
Kathryn A. Davis ,
Yiwen Zhu ,
Thomas W. Soare ,
Andrew D.A.C. Smith ,
Laura Germine  and
Erin C. Dunn Open the ORCID record for Erin C. Dunn [Opens in a new window]
Katherine M. Crawford
Affiliation:
Center for Genomic Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
Karmel Choi
Affiliation:
Center for Genomic Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, The Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA Institute for Technology in Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, USA
Kathryn A. Davis
Affiliation:
Center for Genomic Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
Yiwen Zhu
Affiliation:
Center for Genomic Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
Thomas W. Soare
Affiliation:
Center for Genomic Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, The Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA
Andrew D.A.C. Smith
Affiliation:
Applied Statistics Group, University of the West of England, Bristol, UK
Laura Germine
Affiliation:
Institute for Technology in Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, USA Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Erin C. Dunn*
Affiliation:
Center for Genomic Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, The Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
*
Author for Correspondence: Erin C. Dunn, Psychiatric and Neurodevelopmental Genetics Unit, Center for Genomic Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, 185 Cambridge Street, Simches Research Building 6th Floor, Boston, MA 02114; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Social cognitive deficits can have many negative consequences, spanning social withdrawal to psychopathology. Prior work has shown that child maltreatment may associate with poorer social cognitive skills in later life. However, no studies have examined this association from early childhood into adolescence. Using data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC; n = 4,438), we examined the association between maltreatment (caregiver physical or emotional abuse; sexual or physical abuse), assessed repeatedly (every 1–3 years) from birth to age 9, and social cognitive skills at ages 7.5, 10.5, and 14 years. We evaluated the role of both the developmental timing (defined by age at exposure) and accumulation of maltreatment (defined as the number of occasions exposed) using a least angle regression variable selection procedure, followed by structural equation modeling. Among females, accumulation of maltreatment explained the most variation in social cognitive skills. For males, no significant associations were found. These findings underscore the importance of early intervention to minimize the accumulation of maltreatment and showcase the importance of prospective studies to understand the development of social cognition over time.

Keywords

adversityALSPACsensitive periodssocial cognitionstructural equation modeling
Type
Regular Article
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 34 , Issue 1 , February 2022 , pp. 409 - 419
Check for updates
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Addington, J., Girard, T. A., Christensen, B. K., & Addington, D. (2010). Social cognition mediates illness-related and cognitive influences on social function in patients with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience : JPN, 35, 49. doi:10.1503/jpn.080039CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barahal, R. M., Waterman, J., & Martin, H. P. (1981). The social cognitive development of abused children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 49, 508–516. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.49.4.508CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barresi, J., & Moore, C. (1996). Intentional relations and social understanding. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 19, 107–122. doi:10.1017/S0140525X00041790CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ben-Shlomo, Y., & Kuh, D. (2002). A life course approach to chronic disease epidemiology: Conceptual models, empirical challenges, and interdisciplinary perspectives. International Journal of Epidemiology, 31, 285–293. doi:10.1093/ije/31.2.285CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 238–246. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.238CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bosacki, S. L. (2000). Theory of mind in preadolescence: connections among social understanding, self-concept, and social relations (pp. 3602–3602). Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto.Google Scholar
Bosch, N. M., Riese, H., Reijneveld, S. A., Bakker, M. P., Verhulst, F. C., Ormel, J., & Oldehinkel, A. J. (2012). Timing matters: Long term effects of adversities from prenatal period up to adolescence on adolescents’ cortisol stress response. The TRAILS study. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 37, 1439–1447. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.01.013CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boyd, A., Golding, J., Macleod, J., Lawlor, D. A., Fraser, A., Henderson, J., … Davey Smith, G. (2013). Cohort profile: The ‘children of the 90s’ – the index offspring of the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. International Journal of Epidemiology, 42, 111–127. doi:10.1093/ije/dys064CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Briere, J., & Elliott, D. M. (2003). Prevalence and psychological sequelae of self-reported childhood physical and sexual abuse in a general population sample of men and women. Child Abuse & Neglect, 27, 1205–1222. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2003.09.008CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burnett, S., Sebastian, C., Cohen Kadosh, K., & Blakemore, S.-J. (2011). The social brain in adolescence: Evidence from functional magnetic resonance imaging and behavioural studies. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 1654–1664. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.10.011CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cabrera, N. J., Fagan, J., Wight, V., & Schadler, C. (2011). Influence of mother, father, and child risk on parenting and children's cognitive and social behaviors. Child Development, 82, 1985–2005. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01667.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carey, S., & Diamond, R. (1977). From piecemeal to configurational representation of faces. Science, 195, 312–314. doi:10.1126/science.831281CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carey, S., Diamond, R., & Woods, B. (1980). Development of face recognition: A maturational component? Developmental Psychology, 16, 257–269. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.16.4.257CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., Cowell, R. A., Rogosch, F. A., & Toth, S. L. (2015). Childhood maltreatment and its effect on neurocognitive functioning: Timing and chronicity matter. Development and psychopathology, 27, 521–533.Google Scholar
Cox, J. L., Holden, J. M., & Sagovsky, R. (1987). Detection of postnatal depression. Development of the 10–item Edinburgh postnatal depression scale. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 782–786. doi:10.1192/bjp.150.6.782CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crick, N. R., & Dodge, K. A. (1994). A review and reformulation of social information-processing mechanisms in children's social adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 74. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.115.1.74CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dale, C. L., Findlay, A. M., Adcock, R. A., Vertinski, M., Fisher, M., Genevsky, A., … Vinogradov, S. (2010). Timing is everything: Neural response dynamics during syllable processing and its relation to higher-order cognition in schizophrenia and healthy comparison subjects. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 75, 183–193. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2009.10.009CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dunn, E. C., McLaughlin, K. A., Slopen, N., Rosand, J., & Smoller, J. W. (2013). Developmental timing of child maltreatment and symptoms of depression and suicidal ideation in young adulthood: Results from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Depression and Anxiety, 30, 955–964.Google ScholarPubMed
Dunn, E. C., Nishimi, K., Powers, A., & Bradley, B. (2017). Is developmental timing of trauma exposure associated with depressive and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in adulthood? Journal of Psychiatric Research, 84, 119–127. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2016.09.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dunn, E. C., Soare, T. W., Raffeld, M. R., Busso, D. S., Crawford, K. M., Davis, K. A., … Susser, E. S. (2018). What life course theoretical models best explain the relationship between exposure to childhood adversity and psychopathology symptoms: Recency, accumulation, or sensitive periods? Psychological Medicine, 48, 2562–2572. doi:10.1017/S0033291718000181CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dvir, Y., Ford, J. D., Hill, M., & Frazier, J. A. (2014). Childhood maltreatment, emotional dysregulation, and psychiatric comorbidities. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 22, 149–161. doi:10.1097/HRP.0000000000000014CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Erwin, R. J., Gur, R. C., Gur, R. E., Skolnick, B, Mawhinney-Hee, M, & Smailis, J. (1992). Facial emotion discrimination: I. Task construction and behavioral findings in normal subjects. Psychiatry research, 42(3), 231–240.10.1016/0165-1781(92)90115-JCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evans, G. W., Li, D., & Whipple, S. S. (2013). Cumulative risk and child development. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 342–396. doi:10.1037/a0031808CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Finkelhor, D., Turner, H. A., Shattuck, A., & Hamby, S. L. (2013). Violence, crime, and abuse exposure in a national sample of children and youth: An update. JAMA Pediatrics, 167, 614–621. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2013.42CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, M. H., Mello, M. P., & Dykens, E. M. (2014). Who reports it best? A comparison between parent-report, self-report, and the real life social behaviors of adults with Williams syndrome. Research in developmental disabilities, 35(12), 3276–3284.10.1016/j.ridd.2014.08.011CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Forbes, E. E., & Dahl, R. E. (2010). Pubertal development and behavior: Hormonal activation of social and motivational tendencies. Brain and Cognition, 72, 66–72. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2009.10.007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ford, E., Clark, C., & Stansfeld, S. A. (2011). The influence of childhood adversity on social relations and mental health at mid-life. Journal of Affective Disorders, 133, 320–327. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.03.017CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fraser, A., Macdonald-Wallis, C., Tilling, K., Boyd, A., Golding, J., Davey Smith, G., … Lawlor, D. A. (2013). Cohort profile: The Avon longitudinal study of parents and children: ALSPAC mothers cohort. International Journal of Epidemiology, 42, 97–110. doi:10.1093/ije/dys066CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frith, C. D., & Frith, U. (2007). Social cognition in humans. Current Biology, 17, R724–R32. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2007.05.068CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frith, C. D., & Frith, U. (2007). Social cognition in humans. Current biology, 17(16), R724–R732.10.1016/j.cub.2007.05.068CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Germine, L. T., Duchaine, B., & Nakayama, K. (2011). Where cognitive development and aging meet: Face learning ability peaks after age 30. Cognition, 118, 201–210. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2010.11.002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Germine, L., Dunn, E. C., McLaughlin, K. A., & Smoller, J. W. (2015). Childhood adversity is associated with adult theory of mind and social affiliation, but not face processing. PLoS One, 10, e0129612. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0129612CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilbert, R., Widom, C. S., Browne, K., Fergusson, D., Webb, E., & Janson, S. (2009). Burden and consequences of child maltreatment in high-income countries. Lancet, 373, 68–81. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61706-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Green, M. F., Olivier, B., Crawley, J. N., Penn, D. L., & Silverstein, S. (2005). Social cognition in schizophrenia: Recommendations from the measurement and treatment research to improve cognition in schizophrenia new approaches conference. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 31, 882–887. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbi049CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gur, R. C., Richard, J., Calkins, M. E., Chiavacci, R., Hansen, J. A., Bilker, W. B., … Gur, R. E. (2012). Age group and sex differences in performance on a computerized neurocognitive battery in children age 8-21. Neuropsychology, 26, 251–265. doi:10.1037/a0026712CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Happé, F., & Frith, U. (2014). Annual Research Review: Towards a developmental neuroscience of atypical social cognition. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55(6), 553–577.10.1111/jcpp.12162CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hibbeln, J. R., Davis, J. M., Steer, C., Emmett, P., Rogers, I., Williams, C., & Golding, J. (2007). Maternal seafood consumption in pregnancy and neurodevelopmental outcomes in childhood (ALSPAC study): An observational cohort study. The Lancet, 369, 578–585. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60277-3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kilford, E. J., Garrett, E., & Blakemore, S.-J. (2016). The development of social cognition in adolescence: An integrated perspective. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 70, 106–120. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.08.016CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kline, R. B. (2010). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Kuh, D., Ben-Shlomo, Y., Lynch, J., Hallqvist, J., & Power, C. (2003). Life course epidemiology. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 57, 778–783. doi:10.1136/jech.57.10.778CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ladegaard, N., Larsen, E. R., Videbech, P., & Lysaker, P. H. (2014). Higher-order social cognition in first-episode major depression. Psychiatry Research, 216, 37–43. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2013.12.010CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lang, C. A., Cox, M. J., & Flores, G. (2013). Maltreatment in multiple-birth children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 37, 1109–1113. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.03.002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lawrence, K., Campbell, R., & Skuse, D. (2015). Age, gender, and puberty influence the development of facial emotion recognition. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 761. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00761CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levin, A. R., Fox, N. A., Zeanah, C. H. Jr, & Nelson, C. A.. (2015). Social communication difficulties and autism in previously institutionalized children. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 54(2), 108–115.10.1016/j.jaac.2014.11.011CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lockhart, R., Taylor, J., Tibshirani, R. J., & Tibshirani, R. (2014). A significance test for the LASSO. Annals of Statistics, 42, 413–468. doi:10.1214/13-AOS1175Google ScholarPubMed
Luke, N., & Banerjee, R. (2013). Differentiated associations between childhood maltreatment experiences and social understanding: A meta-analysis and systematic review. Developmental Review, 33, 1–28. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2012.10.001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Magiati, I., Tay, X. W., & Howlin, P. (2014). Cognitive, language, social and behavioural outcomes in adults with autism spectrum disorders: A systematic review of longitudinal follow-up studies in adulthood. Clinical Psychology Review, 34, 73–86. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2013.11.002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manly, J. T., Kim, J. E., Rogosch, F. A., & Cicchetti, D. (2001). Dimensions of child maltreatment and children's adjustment: Contributions of developmental timing and subtype. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 759–782. doi:10.1017/S0954579401004023CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLaughlin, K. A., Green, J. G., Gruber, M. J., Sampson, N. A., Zaslavsky, A. M., & Kessler, R. C. (2010). Childhood adversities and adult psychiatric disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication II: Associations with persistence of DSM-IV disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67, 124–132. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.187CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Messinger, D. S., Young, G. S., Webb, S. J., Ozonoff, S., Bryson, S. E., Carter, A., … Zwaigenbaum, L. (2015). Early sex differences are not autism-specific: A Baby Siblings Research Consortium (BSRC) study. Molecular Autism, 6, 32. doi:10.1186/s13229-015-0027-yCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mills, K. L., Lalonde, F., Clasen, L. S., Giedd, J. N., & Blakemore, S.-J. (2014). Developmental changes in the structure of the social brain in late childhood and adolescence. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 9, 123–131. doi:10.1093/scan/nss113CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Munafò, M. R., & Davey Smith, G. (2018). Robust research needs many lines of evidence. Nature, 553, 399. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-01023-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oliver, B. R., Barker, E. D., Mandy, W. P. L., Skuse, D. H., & Maughan, B. (2011). Social cognition and conduct problems: A developmental approach. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 50, 385–394. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2011.01.006CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Palmier-Claus, J., Berry, K., Darrell-Berry, H., Emsley, R., Parker, S., Drake, R., & Bucci, S. (2016). Childhood adversity and social functioning in psychosis: Exploring clinical and cognitive mediators. Psychiatry Research, 238, 25–32. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2016.02.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Piskulic, D., & Addington, J. (2011). Social cognition and negative symptoms in psychosis. Psychiatry Research, 188, 283–285. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2011.04.028CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prino, L. E., Rollè, L., Sechi, C., Patteri, L., Ambrosoli, A., Caldarera, A. M., … Brustia, P. (2016). Parental relationship with twins from pregnancy to 3 months: The relation among parenting stress, infant temperament, and well-being. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1628. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01628CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rose, A. J., & Rudolph, K. D. (2006). A review of sex differences in peer relationship processes: Potential trade-offs for the emotional and behavioral development of girls and boys. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 98–131. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.98CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rowe, R., Maughan, B., Worthman, C. M., Costello, E. J., & Angold, A. (2004). Testosterone, antisocial behavior, and social dominance in boys: Pubertal development and biosocial interaction. Biological Psychiatry, 55, 546–552. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2003.10.010CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rubin, D. B. (1987). Multiple imputation for nonresponse in surveys. New York, NY: J. Wiley & Sons.10.1002/9780470316696CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sasson, N. J., Nowlin, R. B., & Pinkham, A. E. (2013). Social cognition, social skill, and the broad autism phenotype. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice, 17, 655–667. doi:10.1177/1362361312455704CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sergi, M. J., Rassovsky, Y., Nuechterlein, K. H., & Green, M. F. (2006). Social perception as a mediator of the influence of early visual processing on functional status in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 448–454. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.3.448CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skuse, D. H., James, R. S., Bishop, D. V. M., Coppin, B., Dalton, P., Aamodt-Leeper, G., … Jacobs, P. A. (1997). Evidence from turner's syndrome of an imprinted x-linked locus affecting cognitive function. Nature, 387, 705–708. doi:10.1038/42706CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, A. D., Hardy, R., Heron, J., Joinson, C. J., Lawlor, D. A., Macdonald-Wallis, C., & Tilling, K. (2016). A structured approach to hypotheses involving continuous exposures over the life course. International Journal of Epidemiology, 45, 1271–1279. doi:10.1093/ije/dyw238Google ScholarPubMed
Smith, A. D., Heron, J., Mishra, G., Gilthorpe, M. S., Ben-Shlomo, Y., & Tilling, K. (2015). Model selection of the effect of binary exposures over the life course. Epidemiology, 26, 719–726. doi:10.1097/EDE.0000000000000348CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steiger, J. H. (1990). Structural model evaluation and modification: An interval estimation approach. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 25, 173–180. doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr2502_4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stoltenborgh, M., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Alink, L. R. A., & Ijzendoorn, M. H. (2015). The prevalence of child maltreatment across the globe: Review of a series of meta-analyses. Child Abuse Review 24(1), 37–50. doi:10.1002/car.2353CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Teicher, M. H., Andersen, S. L., Polcari, A., Anderson, C. M., Navalta, C. P., & Kim, D. M. (2003). The neurobiological consequences of early stress and childhood maltreatment. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 27, 33–44. doi:10.1016/S0149-7634(03)00007-1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tucker, L. R., & Lewis, C. (1973). A reliability coefficient for maximum likelihood factor analysis. Psychometrika, 38, 1–10. doi:10.1007/BF02291170CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Buuren, S., & Groothuis-Oudshoorn, K. (2011). Mice: Multivariate imputation by chained equations in R. Journal of Statistical Software, 45, 1–68.Google Scholar
Van Der Graaff, J., Branje, S., De Wied, M., Hawk, S., Van Lier, P., & Meeus, W. (2014). Perspective taking and empathic concern in adolescence: Gender differences in developmental changes. Developmental Psychology, 50, 881–888. doi:10.1037/a0034325CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vauth, R., Rüsch, N., Wirtz, M., & Corrigan, P. W. (2004). Does social cognition influence the relation between neurocognitive deficits and vocational functioning in schizophrenia? Psychiatry Research, 128, 155–165. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2004.05.018CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vetter, N. C., Leipold, K., Kliegel, M., Phillips, L. H., & Altgassen, M. (2013). Ongoing development of social cognition in adolescence. Child Neuropsychology, 19, 615–629. doi:10.1080/09297049.2012.718324CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weijers, J, Fonagy, P, Eurelings-Bontekoe, E, Termorshuizen, F, Viechtbauer, W, & Selten, J. P.. Mentalizing impairment as a mediator between reported childhood abuse and outcome in nonaffective psychotic disorder. Psychiatry research, 259, 463–469.10.1016/j.psychres.2017.11.010CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, L. M., Mathersul, D, Palmer, D. M., Gur, R. C., Gur, R. E., & Gordon, E. (2009). Explicit identification and implicit recognition of facial emotions: I. Age effects in males and females across 10 decades. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 31(3), 257–277.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wrobel Howells, N., & Lachar, D. (1998). Validity of self‐and parent‐report scales in screening students for behavioral and emotional problems in elementary school. Psychology in the Schools, 35(1), 17–27.10.1002/(SICI)1520-6807(199801)35:1<17::AID-PITS2>3.0.CO;2-R3.0.CO;2-R>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yves, R. (2012). Lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48, 1–36.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Crawford et al. supplementary material

Crawford et al. supplementary material

Download Crawford et al. supplementary material(File)
File 481.9 KB