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The Unifying Element? European Socialism and Anti-Fascism, 1939–1945

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 October 2016

JENS SPÄTH
JENS SPÄTH*
Affiliation:
Universität des Saarlandes, FR 3.4 Geschichte – Historisches Institut, Lehrstuhl für Neuere Geschichte und Landesgeschichte, Gebäude B 3 1, Raum 3.03, D-66123 Saarbrücken; [email protected]
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Abstract

Far too often studies in contemporary history have concentrated on national stories. By contrast, this article analyses wartime discourses about and practices against fascism in France, Germany and Italy in a comparative and – as far as possible – transnational perspective. By looking at individual biographies some general aspects of socialist anti-fascism, as well as similarities and differences within anti-fascism, shall be identified and start to fill the gap which Jacques Droz left in 1985 when he ended his Histoire de l'antifascisme en Europe with the outbreak of the Second World War. To visualise the transnational dimension of socialist anti-fascism both in discourse and practice different categories shall be considered. These include historical analyses and projects for the post-war order in letters, newspapers, periodicals, pamphlets and books, acts of solidarity like mutual aid networks set up by groups and institutions and forms of collaboration in resistance movements.

Type
Articles
Information
Contemporary European History , Volume 25 , Special Issue 4: Transnational Anti-Fascism: Agents, Networks, Circulations , November 2016 , pp. 687 - 706
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2016 

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References

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23 Le Populaire, 21 Nov. 1934.

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29 Willy Brandt, Rede des Vertreters des SPD-Parteivorstandes in Berlin vor Funktionären der Berliner SPD, 12 Mar. 1948, AdsD, WBA, A 3, 41. See also Graham, Helen, Socialism and War: the Spanish Socialist Party in Power and Crisis, 1936–1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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33 It is impossible to give exact numbers because not all emigrants had been registered officially and even if they had been registered many documents got lost during war. According to recent studies there might have been about 9,000 German speaking political refugees in France in 1939; as far as the social democrats are concerned one might propose a low four-figure number. See Schneider, Michael, In der Kriegsgesellschaft: Arbeiter und Arbeiterbewegung 1939 bis 1945 (Bonn: Dietz, 2014), 901 Google Scholar.

34 See, for example, the Comité National Catholique de secours aux réfugiés d'Espagne, the Ligue Française pour la Défense des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen or all the interventions of Salomon Grumbach with different authorities; all to be found in Fonds Salomon Grumbach: une plongée dans la vie des réfugiés du Reich en France 1939–1940. Bibliothèque de l'Alliance israélite universelle, Paris (BAIU), AP 17/004, AP 17/006, AP 17/023, AP 17/033, AP 17/034, AP 17/076, AP 17/082. Quotation in AP 17/190, carte 3.

35 See for instance Giuseppe Saragat to Léon Blum, 16 Dec. 1939, asking him to renew his working permission, CHScPo, Fonds Léon Blum de Moscou, Inventaire 2, dossier 334, carte 3; Giuseppe Emanuele Modigliani to Léon Blum, Marseille, 25 Sept. 1940, Pietro Nenni to Léon Blum, L'Aude, Narbonne, 22 Sept. 1940 and Palalde, 27 Feb. 1941; all Archives Nationales, Site Pierrefitte-sur-Seine (AN), Archives personales, Fonds Léon Blum, 570 AP 19.

36 See Suzanne Posty to Salomon Grumbach, Paris 14 Dec. 1939, Fonds Salomon Grumbach, BAIU, AP 17/138, carte 16.

37 Erich Ollenhauer, Brief an Léon Blum als Sekretär der Internationalen Sozialistischen Jugend, Montrouge, 27 May 1940, CHScPo, Fonds Léon Blum de Moscou, Inventaire 2, dossier 169, carte 2.

38 See Uellenberg and Eppe, Jugendinternationale, 45; on the impact of the Pact on international anti-fascism see Bayerlein, Bernhard H., Der Verräter, Stalin, bist Du! Vom Ende der linken Solidarität; Komintern und kommunistische Parteien im Zweiten Weltkrieg 1939–1941 (Berlin: Aufbau-Verlag, 2008)Google Scholar.

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40 Fladhammer and Wildt, Brauer, 288, note 1.

41 See also Buchanan, Tom, ‘Anti-Fascism and Democracy in the 1930s’, European History Quarterly, 32, 1 (2002), 39–57 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bresciani, Marco, ‘Socialism, Antifascism and Anti-Totalitarianism: The Intellectual Dialogue (and Discord) between Andrea Caffi and Nicola Chiaramonte (1932–1955)’, History of European Ideas, 40, 7 (2014), 984–1003 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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43 See Bollettino del Nuovo Avanti, November 1941, in: ibid.

44 For the transnational activities of socialists and trade unionists especially in Great Britain see Lipgens, Walter, ed., Documents on the History of European Integration, II, Plans for European Union in Great Britain and in Exile, 1939–1945 (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1986), 653–98Google Scholar.

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50 Erich Ollenhauer to Ernst Roth, London, 17 Apr. 1945, AdsD, Nachlass Ernst Roth, Varia.

51 For European initiatives see notes 58–63; for socialist cooperation see, for example, Braunthal, Geschichte der Internationale, III, 19–119 and 167–77; see also Lorenz, Einhart, ed., Willy Brandt, Berliner Ausgabe, II, Zwei Vaterländer, Deutsch-Norweger im schwedischen Exil – Rückkehr nach Deutschland 1940–1947 (Bonn: Dietz, 2000), 88–104 Google Scholar, 115–205, 215–30.

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53 See Institut für Zeitgeschichte München, Munich (IfZ), Nachlass Wilhelm Hoegner, ED 120-2-18+19: Otto Braun to Hoegner, Ascona, 6 June 1944; ED 120-2-26+27: Braun to Ritzel, Ascona, 21 Sept. 1944; ED 120-13-138-147; ED 120-12-70-91: Das Demokratische Deutschland, Bern/Leipzig 1945; see also Hoegner, Wilhelm, Der schwierige Aussenseiter. Erinnerungen eines Abgeordneten, Emigranten und Ministerpräsidenten (München: Isar, 1959), 166–72Google Scholar.

54 Pietro Nenni, Programma del PSI per il periodo dopo il fascismo, 1943, ACS, Archivio Nenni, b. 87, fasc. 2183.

55 Edgardo Longoni to Pietro Nenni, 10 Aug. 1944, Fondazione Pietro Nenni, Rome (FPN), Archivio Nenni, b. 44, fasc. 2024, letter 55.

56 PSI, Federazione di Lecce, Niccolò Coppola to Pietro Nenni, 7 Sept. 1944, FPN, Archivio Nenni, b. 44, fasc. 2024, letter 94.

57 Ibid. letter 69.

58 The integral text in English translation is reported in Lipgens, Walter, ed., Documents on the History of European Integration, I, Continental Plans for European Union, 1939–1945 (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1985), 471–84Google Scholar.

59 See on this and the following, ibid. 659–97; and Aglan, Le Temps de la Résistance, 191–222.

60 See ibid.

61 Lipgens, Documents, vol. I, 423–4.

62 Ibid. 449–50.

63 Ibid. 685–6.

64 Willy Brandt, Protokoll, Anlage 5a: Wiedererrichtung der sozialistischen Internationale, AdsD, WBA, A5, Sign. 10 B, Emigration 1943.

65 See Riccardo Luzzatto, correspondance with Pietro Nenni, ACS, Archivio Pietro Nenni, b. 31, fasc. 1535.

66 Informationen der SPD-Gruppe in Frankreich: Auf dem Wege zur Erneuerung der Internationale, 1, AdsD, Nachlass Ernst Roth, Varia.

67 See Théofilakis, Fabien, Les prisonniers de guerre allemands. France, 1944–1949 (Paris: Fayard, 2014)Google Scholar.

68 SFIO, Comité Directeur: Procès-verbaux des réunions du Comité Directeur, L'OURS, 13 Nov. 1944–15 Mar. 1945, for the events mentioned above see 11, 55–6, 93, 94, 104.

69 For a short biography see AdsD, Nachlass Franz Glauben.

70 Fédération des Groupes Socialistes Étrangers en France, Section du Rhône (Lyon), Rapport sur la visite de John Hynd à Paris, 28 Mar. 1945, AdsD, Nachlass Franz Glauben, Mappe 1.

71 Franz Glauben to Jesús Zamora Solana, June 1945, ibid.

72 Lipgens, Documents, vol. I, 684–5.

73 For the German Anti-fascist Committees see Lutz Niethammer, Bosdorf, Ulrich and Brandt, Peter, eds., Arbeiterinitiative 1945. Antifaschistische Ausschüsse und Reorganisation durch Arbeiterbewegung in Deutschland (Wuppertal: Peter Hammer Verlag, 1976)Google Scholar.

74 Willy Brandt, Tätigkeitsbericht der Internationalen Gruppe demokratischer Sozialisten, Stockholm, 31 Dec. 1944, AdsD, WBA, A5, Sign. 12.

75 See Pietro Nenni's article in the Avanti! on upcoming tasks for European socialism, reported by Landesleitung der SPD in Schweden: Sozialistische Tribüne, n. 5, May 1945, AdsD, Nachlass Peter Blachstein, Mappe 47.

76 Morgan Philipps to Pietro Nenni, 11 May 1945, ACS, Archivio Nenni, b. 36, fasc. 1118, letter 3.

77 See for instance Pietro Nenni to Ernest Bevin, 5 Sept. 1945 and Ernest Bevin to Pietro Nenni, 5 April 1946, ACS, Archivio Nenni, B. 19, fasc. 1118.

78 Denis Healey, Message to be taken to the German Social Democratic Party by comrades Ollenhauer and Heine, 31 Jan. 1946, AdsD, Bestand Kurt Schumacher, Mappe 66.

79 For Greece see Braunthal, Geschichte der Internationale, vol. III, 136–43; for the Spanish question see Buchanan, Tom, ‘Receding Triumph: British Opposition to the Franco Regime, 1945–1959’, Twentieth Century British History, 12, 2 (2001), 163–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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81 Kurt Schumacher, Politische Richtlinien für die S.P.D. in ihrem Verhältnis zu den anderen politischen Faktoren, 8 Aug. 1945, in Schumacher, Kurt, Reden—Schriften—Korrespondenzen 1945–1952, Albrecht, Willy, ed. (Berlin: Dietz, 1985), 276–7Google Scholar. See now also Imlay, Talbot C., ‘“The Policy of Social Democracy is Self-Consciously Internationalist”: The German Social Democratic Party's Internationalism after 1945’, The Journal of Modern History, 86 (2014), 81–123 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

82 Kurt Schumacher to Daniel Mayer, Hannover, 6 Jan. 1946, AdsD, Bestand Kurt Schumacher, Mappe 67.

83 Kurt Schumacher and Erich Ollenhauer, 28 Mar. 1951, Telegrams of the SPD party executive to the Spanish and Italian socialists, ibid., Mappe 54.

84 Günther Markscheffel to Kurt Schumacher, 29 Nov. 1946; Erich Ollenhauer to Günter Markscheffel, Hannover, 6 March 1946; Günther Markscheffel to Fritz Heine and Erich Ollenhauer, on the road, 10 Aug. 1946; all ibid., Mappe 67.

85 See the invitation of the SPD to the SFIO, Ollenhauer an Markscheffel, Hannover, 2 Apr. 1946, ibid; the SFIO-delegation for the congress of the PSIUP in Rome in July 1944, SFIO, Procès-verbaux des réunions du Comité Directeur, L'OURS, 162.

86 See Guy Mollet, ‘Chi sono i fascisti’, Battaglia socialista, 24 Nov. 1946, 2.

87 Ollenhauer to Markscheffel, Hannover, 2 Apr. 1946, AdsD, Bestand Kurt Schumacher, Mappe 67.

88 Otto Meister to Erna and Josef Lang, Essen, 20 Dec. 1947, AdsD, Nachlass Erna und Josef Land, Mappe 25.

89 Peter Blachstein, ‘Solidarität’, Neue Welt Kalender, 1947, AdsD, Nachlass Peter Blachstein, Mappe 10.

90 See for the French–German case Delori, Mathias, ‘La mémoire de l'exil et de la résistance antifasciste comme ciment d'une identité supranationale’, Cahiers d'histoire. Revue d'histoire critique, 100 (2007), 99–117 Google Scholar.

91 Quoted after Jean-Paul Cahn, ‘Le parti social-démocrate allemand (S.P.D.) et la France (1954–1958)’, 3 vols., Thèse de doctorat d'État, Université de Strasbourg II, 1992, vol. I, 29.

92 Roth was to intervene at the commemoration ceremony for Marx Dormoy on 29 July at Montélimar; see Boucher to Ernst Roth, Valence, 18 July 1945, AdsD, Nachlass Ernst Roth, Varia. Max Braun and other Saarland socialists were honoured by the first ordinary congress of the Sozialdemokratische Partei des Saarlands on 30 March 1946: Saarbrücken, Landesarchiv Saarbrücken, Nachlass Richard Kirn, Mappe 4.

93 See Carlé to Glauben, 27 Dec. 1945 concerning documents in order to prove the participation in the Résistance and in the French army, AdsD, Nachlass Franz Glauben, Mappe I; see also Willy Brandt to Kurt Schumacher, 13 Jan. 1946, AdsD, WBA, A5, Sign. 14.

94 Peter Blachstein, ‘Ignazio Silone – Rufer der Freiheit’, Hamburger Echo, 28 Oct. 1947.

95 See Peter Blachstein, Manuscript on the Spanish Civil War, 20 June 1956; ‘Franco‘s Jubiläum’, June/July 1956, AdsD, Nachlass Peter Blachstein, Mappe 12; see also Willy Brandt, Zehn Jahre Franco, Hannover, 25 Mar. 1949, AdsD, WBA, A3, Mappe 45A.

96 Sachakten der SPD-Landesorganisation Hamburg 1948/49, AdsD, Nachlass Peter Blachstein, Mappe 24.

97 Droz, Histoire, 11.

98 Albert Grzesinski to Max Kukielczynski, 6 Oct. 1946, in Grzesinski, Kampf, 373–4.

99 Meyer, Kristina, Die SPD und die NS-Vergangenheit 1945–1990 (Göttingen: Wallstein, 2015)Google Scholar.

100 Eley, Geoff, ‘Legacies of Antifascism: Constructing. Democracy in Postwar Europe’, New German critique, 67 (1996), 73–100 CrossRefGoogle Scholar. This remains even true if we take into account the difficult issues of victimhood and reparations or the deception of being marginalised in the new Italian state. See Ludi, Regula, Reparations for Nazi victims in Postwar Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Acciai, Enrico, ‘Memorie difficili. Antifascismo italiano, volontariato internazionale e guerra civile spagnola’, Diacronie. Studi di Storia Contemporanea, 7, 3 (2011)Google Scholar, available online at http://www.studistorici.com/2011/071/29/acciai1_numero_7 (last visited 3 August 2016).

101 Lipgens, Documents, vol. I, Giustizia e Libertà, ‘Partigiani di tutta Europa, unitevi!’, in Il Partigiano Alpino (Piedmont edn.), I, 6, (Dec. 1944), 545–6.