Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-fscjk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T16:50:56.403Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

City Mayors, Raion Chiefs and Village Elders in Ukraine, 1941–4: How Local Administrators Co-operated with the German Occupation Authorities

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 June 2014

MARKUS EIKEL  and
VALENTINA SIVAIEVA
MARKUS EIKEL
Affiliation:
International Criminal Court, Maanweg 174, 2516 AB, The Hague; [email protected]
VALENTINA SIVAIEVA
Affiliation:
High Commissioner on National Minorities, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, Prinsessegracht 22, 2514 AP, The Hague, The Netherlands; [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

During the occupation of Ukraine, city mayors, raion chiefs and village elders played a substantial role in implementing occupation policies. Based in large part on primary sources from regional archives in Ukraine, the current article analyses the role of these local administrators, so far largely neglected in research on the occupation of Ukraine. Whatever their original motives were for joining the local administration (Hilfsverwaltung) – economic, nationalistic, or ethnic reasons, or a desire for better governance, local administrators nevertheless supported forced labour measures and the murder of the local Jewish population by identifying the local Jewish inhabitants, by administering the property of the murdered Jews or by facilitating Jewish forced labour duties. The article treats the city administration in Kamenets-Podol’sk in Podolia as a case study of the involvement of the local administration in the crimes committed under the occupation regime.

Les maires des villes, les chefs des départements (‘raions’) et les anciens des villages en ukraine, 1941–4: coopération de la population locale avec les autorités allemandes sous l’occupation

Sous l’occupation allemande de l’Ukraine pendant la Deuxième Guerre mondiale, les maires des villes, les chefs des départements (‘raions’) et les anciens des villages ont joué un rôle déterminant pour la mise en œuvre des politiques d’occupation. Largement fondé sur des sources primaires des archives régionales ukrainiennes, cet article analyse le rôle de ces administrateurs locaux, largement négligés jusqu’ici dans les recherches sur l’occupation de l’Ukraine. Quelles qu’aient été les motivations initiales de leur collaboration (économiques, nationalistes ou ethniques, ou la recherche d’une meilleure gouvernance), les administrateurs locaux n’en ont pas moins soutenu les mesures de travail forcé et le meurtre de la population juive locale en identifiant les Juifs pour les autorités d’occupation, en administrant la propriété des Juifs assassinés ou en organisant des travaux forcés pour les Juifs. Cet article utilise la ville de Kamenets Podol’sk, en Podolie, pour une étude de cas sur la participation des autorités locales aux crimes commis sous le régime d’occupation.

Bürgermeister, rayonchefs und dorfälteste in der ukraine, 1941–4: wie einheimische mit den deutschen besatzungsbehörden zusammenarbeiteten

Während der Besatzung der Ukraine im Zweiten Weltkrieg spielten Bürgermeister, Rayonchefs und Dorfälteste eine wichtige Rolle bei der Umsetzung deutscher Besatzungsziele auf lokaler Ebene. Basierend überwiegend auf Quellen aus ukrainischen Regionalarchiven, analysiert der vorliegende Aufsatz die Rolle der einheimischen Verwaltungsangehörigen, die in der Forschung zur Besatzung der Ukraine bislang weitgehend vernachlässigt wurden. Ungeachtet ihrer ursprünglichen Motive, die wirtschaftlicher, nationalistischer oder ethnischer Natur sein konnten oder dem Wunsch nach einem besseren Verwaltungsmanagement entsprangen, unterstützten die Verwaltungskräfte letztendlich Zwangsarbeitsmassnamen und die Ermordung der örtlichen jüdischen Bevölkerung dadurch, dass sie den Besatzungsorganen gegenüber jüdische Einwohner identifizierten, das Eigentum der ermordeten Juden verwalteten oder Juden zu Zwangsarbeitsdiensten vermittelten. Der Aufsatz verwendet die Situation in der Stadt Kamenets-Podol’sk in Podolien als Fallbeispiel für die Involvierung einheimischer Verwaltungskräfte in die unter dem Besatzungsregime begangenen Verbrechen.

Type
Articles
Information
Contemporary European History , Volume 23 , Issue 3 , August 2014 , pp. 405 - 428
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Derzhavnii Arkhiv Khmelnyts’koi Oblasti (DAKO), Gazeta Podolianin (1941–43), No. 2, 14 Sept. 1941).

2 Mallmann, Klaus-Michael, ‘Der qualitative Sprung im Vernichtugsprozess: Das Massaker von Kamenez-Podol’sk Ende August 1941’, Jahrbuch für Antisemitismusforschung 10 (2001), 239–64Google Scholar; Pohl, Dieter, ‘The Murder of Ukraine's Jews under German Military Administration and in the Reich Commissariat Ukraine’, in Lower, Wendy and Brandon, Ray, eds, The Shoah in Ukraine: History, Testimony, Memorialization (Bloomington: Indiana University Press 2008), 23–76Google Scholar, here at 29–32. See also the following two published documents: comment of the Reich ministry for the occupied eastern territories, signed Labs, 27 Aug. 1941; Telex of HSSPF Russia-South, 30 Aug. 1941, printed in Die Verfolgung und Ermordung der europäischen Juden durch das nationalsozialistische Deutschland 1933–1945, Band 7: Sowjetunion mit annektierten Gebieten I: Besetzte sowjetische Gebiete unter deutscher Militärverwaltung, Baltikum und Transnistrien, ed. Bert Hoppe and Hildrun Glass (Munich: Oldenbourg 2011), 264–7 and 270–1.

3 Summarized in Johannes Hürter and Jürgen Zarusky, introduction in Johannes Hürter and Jürgen Zarusky, eds, Besatzung, Kollaboration, Holocaust: Neue Studien zur Verfolgung und Ermordung der europäischen Juden mit einer Reportage von Wassili Grossman (Munich: Oldenbourg 2008), VII–X. For occupied Ukraine, see the study on German security police/SD personnel by Prusin, Alexander V., ‘A Community of Violence: The Sipo/SD and its Role in the Nazi Terror System in Generalbezirk Kiew’, Holocaust and Genocide Studies 21, 1 (2007), 1–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4 See the case studies published in de Wever, Bruno, Van Goethem, Hermann, Wouters, Nico, eds, Local Government in Occupied Europe (1939–1945) (Ghent: Academia 2006)Google Scholar.

5 For occupied Belgium: Wouters, Nico, Oorlogsburgemeesters 1940–4: Lokaal bestuur en collaboratie in België (Tielt: Lannoo 2004)Google Scholar, in particular 452–65; for the occupied Netherlands: Romijn, Peter, Burgemeesters in oorlogstijd: Besturen tijdens de Duitse besetting (Amsterdam: Balans 2006)Google Scholar, in particular 441–64.

6 In a concise summary Pohl, Dieter, Die Herrschaft der Wehrmacht: Deutsche Militärbesatzung und einheimische Bevölkerung in der Sowjetunion 1941–1944 (Munich: Oldenbourg 2008), 178–80Google Scholar.

7 Kovalev, B. N., Natsistskaja okkupatsija i kollaboratsionizm v Rossii, 1941–1944 (Moscow: OOO ‘Izdatel’stvo AST’ 2004)Google Scholar; Kilian, Jürgen, Wehrmacht und Besatzungsherrschaft im Russischen Nordwesten 44: Praxis und Alltag im Militärverwaltungsgebiet der Heeresgruppe Nord (Paderborn: Schöningh 2012), 163–70Google Scholar.

8 Chiari, Bernhard, Alltag hinter der Front: Besatzung, Kollaboration, und Widerstand in Weißrußland 1941–1944 (Dusseldorf: Droste 1998)Google Scholar; Rein, Leonid, The Kings and the Pawns: Collaboration in Byelorussia during the Second World War (New York: Berghahn, 2011)Google Scholar.

9 Reichelt, Katrin, Lettland unter deutscher Besatzung: Der lettische Anteil am Holocaust (Berlin: Metropol, 2011), 352–64Google Scholar; Feder, Björn M., Lettland im Zweiten Weltkrieg: Zwischen sowjetischen und deutschen Besatzern 1940–1946 (Paderborn: Schöningh, 2009), 253–66Google Scholar.

10 Dieckmann, Christoph, Deutsche Besatzungspolitik in Litauen 1941–1944 (Göttingen: Wallstein, 2011)Google Scholar, in particular Vol. 1, 467–79.

11 Maripuu, Meelis, Omavalitsuseta omavalitsused Halduskorraldus Eestis Saksa okupatsiooni ajal 1941–1944 (Tartu: Űlikool Tartuensis, 2012)Google Scholar.

12 Desbois, Patrick, The Holocaust by Bullets: The Mass Shooting of Jews in Ukraine 1941–1944 (Paris: Memorial de la Shoah, 2007)Google Scholar.

13 Dean, Martin, Collaboration in the Holocaust: Crimes of the Local Police in Belorussia and Ukraine, 1941–1944 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pohl, Dieter, ‘Ukrainische Hilfskräfte beim Mord an den Juden’, in Paul, Gerhard, ed., Die Täter der Shoah, Fanatische Nationalsozialisten oder ganz normale Deutsche? (Göttingen: Wallstein, 2002), 205–34Google Scholar; Golczewski, Frank, ‘Organe der deutschen Besatzungsmacht: Die ukrainischen Schutzmannschaften’ in Benz, Wolfgang, ten Cate, Johannes Houwinck and Otto, Gerhard, eds, Die Bürokratie der Okkupation: Strukturen der Herrschaft und Verwaltung im besetzten Europa (Berlin: Metropol, 1998), 173–96Google Scholar.

14 They have been best dealt with in the general works on German-occupied Ukraine: Berkhoff, Karel C., Harvest of Despair: Life and Death in Ukraine 1941–1944 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2004), 29–30Google Scholar, 51–2, 118, 151–2 and passim; Lower, Wendy, Nazi Empire-Building and the Holocaust in Ukraine (Chapel Hill NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 9–10Google Scholar, 45–8, 105–6, 180–1 and passim. See local studies with references to the Local Auxiliary Administration Skorobohatov, A. V., Kharkiv u chasy nimetskoyi okkupatsii (1941–1943) (Kharkiv: Prapor, 2004)Google Scholar; Klymenko, Oleh and Tkachov, Serhii, Ukraintsi v politsii v reichskomisariati ‘Ukraina’ (Pivdenna Volyn’): Nimets’kyi okupatsiinyi rezhym na Kremenechchyni u 1941–1944rr (Kharkiv: Ranok-NT, 2012)Google Scholar. See further Frank Golczewski, ‘Local Government in German-Occupied Ukraine’, in De Wever, Van Goethem, Wouters, Local Government, 241–57; and as a case study for Penter, Donez’k Tanja, ‘Die lokale Gesellschaft im Donbass unter deutscher Okkupation’, in Dieckmann, Christoph, Quinkert, Babette and Tönsmeyer, Tatjana, eds, Kooperation und Verbrechen: Formen der ‘Kollaboration’ im östlichen Europa 1939–1945 (Göttingen: Wallstein, 2003), 183–223Google Scholar, particularly 201–11.

15 See various publications of John-Paul Himka, including ‘The Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, the Ukrainian Police, and the Holocaust’, paper prepared for the Seventh Annual Danyliw Research Seminar on Contemporary Ukraine, 20–22 Oct. 2011, accessed at www.academia.edu (last visited 1 March 2013).

16 See a short paragraph on this topic for central and eastern Ukraine by John-Paul Himka, ‘Collaboration and/or Resistance: The OUN and UPA during the War’, paper prepared for the Ukrainian Jewish Encounter Shared Narrative Series: Conference on Issues Relating to the Second World War, Potsdam, 27–30 June 2011, 12, accessed at www.academia.edu (last visited 1 March 2013).

17 Pohl, Dieter, ‘Schauplatz Ukraine: Der Massenmord an den Juden im Militärverwaltungsgebiet und im Reichskommissariat 1941–1944’, in Frei, Norbert, Steinbacher, Sybille and Wagner, Bernd C., eds, Ausbeutung, Vernichtung, Őffentlichkeit: Neue Studien zur nationalsozialistischen Lagerpolitik (Munich: Oldenbourg, 2000), 168Google Scholar. In his introductory remarks at a conference in Berlin in November 2012, Pohl reiterated that the research on local administrations and other local auxiliary organs is still in its infancy. See the conference report ‘Vernichtungskrieg, Reaktionen, Erinnerung: Die deutsche Besatzungsherrschaft in der Sowjetunion 1941–1944, 22.11.2012–24.11.2012’, Berlin, in H-Soz-u-Kult, 11.02.2013, http://hsozkult.geschichte.hu-berlin.de/tagungsberichte/id=4648 (last visited 14 April 2014).

18 The present article focuses on the areas of Ukraine that were part of the RKU, administered by a civilian administration, and the areas of German military administration, primarily to the east of the RKU. The focus is not on the parts of Ukraine incorporated into the General Government (administered from Cracow) or the Romanian-controlled Transnistria (the region between the rivers Dniester and Bug).

19 Numbers quoted in: Berkhoff, Harvest of Despair, 151; Tanja Penter, ‘Lokale Gesellschaft’, 201.

20 In some towns of Ukraine, a more independent form of local administration was established during occupation. These rather individual cases will stay outside the focus of the present article. See in the case of the ‘Olevs’k Republic’ in 1941 the research of Jared McBride, presented in Paris in October 2007 at the Conference ‘The Holocaust in Ukraine: New Resources and Perspectives’ in the paper ‘Eyewitness to an Occupation: Collaboration and the Holocaust in Olevs’k, Zhytomyr Region’.

21 The significant involvement of local administrators in various forms of forced labour measures will stay outside the focus of this article. See Eikel, Markus, ‘“Weil die Menschen fehlen”: Die deutschen Zwangsarbeitsrekrutierungen und –deportationen in den besetzten Gebieten der Ukraine 1941–1944’, in Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft 53, 5 (2005), 405–33Google Scholar, and ‘Das Reichskommissariat Ukraine als Fallbeispiel für den Arbeitseinsatz in der besetzten Sowjetunion 1941–1944’, in Quinkert, Babette and Morré, Jörg, eds, Vernichtungskrieg, Reaktionen, Erinnerung: Die deutsche Besatzungsherrschaft in der Sowjetunion 1941–1944, (Paderborn: Schöningh, forthcoming, 2014)Google Scholar.

22 Yuri Radchenko has demonstrated how archival holdings from regional archives can fruitfully be used for research on perpetrators. For his work on the Ukrainian auxiliary police, see, e.g. ‘Iogo choboty ta esesivs’ka forma buly zabryzkani krov’iu . . . : Taiemna poliova politsiia, politsiia bezpeky ta SD, dopomizhna politsiia u terori shchodo ievreiv Kharkova (1941–1943rr)’, in Holokost i suchasnist 10, 2 (2011), 46–8. As the work in some of the regional archives has demonstrated, the relevant source material in the archives often goes substantially beyond the copies that are kept at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, D.C. For the document selection criteria of the USHMM, see http://www.ushmm.org/research/center/archguide/intro/ (last visited 14 April 2014).

23 Consequently, written archival documents, both from central and regional holdings, have also served as the main source base for research on local administrators in occupied Western Europe. See Wouters, Oorlogsburgemeesters, 718–29, and Romijn, Burgemeesters in oorlogstijd, 732–3.

24 For an analysis of the Soviet trial material, including its limitations, see Penter, Tanja, ‘Collaboration on Trial: New Source Material on Soviet Postwar Trials against Collaborators’, Slavic Review, 65, 4 (2005), 782–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

25 For a critical evaluation of this material, see Wendy Lower, ‘Local Participation in the Crimes of the Holocaust in Ukraine: Forms and Consequences: Presentation given at the conference in Berlin organised by the Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung’; accessed at http://www.bpb.de/files/Z55Z90.pdf (last visited 1 Sept. 2009).

26 Penter, ‘Lokale Gesellschaft’, 201–11.

27 Vronsʹka, T. V., Kentiy, A. V., Kokin, S. A.et al., eds, Kyiv u dni natsysts’koi navaly: Za dokumentamy radians’kykh spetssluzhb (Kyiv-Lviv: Missioner, 2003)Google Scholar.

28 For example the memoirs of the deputy city mayor of Kharkiv: Semenenko, Oleksander, Kharkiv, Kharkiv . . . (Munich: Suchasnist, 1976)Google Scholar. For an example from the General Government, see Yashan, Vasylʹ, Pid brunatnym chobotom: Nimets’ka okupatsiia Stanislavshchyny v Druhii svitovii viini, 1941–1944 (Toronto: New Pathway Publishers, 1989)Google Scholar.

29 For example, the published version of the memoirs of the city mayor of Smolensk: Menshagin, B. G., Smolensk . . . Katyn . . .Vladimirskaia tiurma . . . (Paris: YMCA Press, 1988)Google Scholar. Oleksander Ohloblyn, the mayor of Kiev from 23 Sept. to 29 Oct. 1941, emigrated to the United States after the war but never published about his time as a mayor, focusing exclusively on his historical research and his efforts to rebuild Ukrainian historiography and Ukrainian culture repressed by the Soviet regime. For Ohloblyn, see Plokhy, Serhii, The Cossack Myth: History and Nationhood in the Age of Empires (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 109–12CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Verba, Ihor, Oleksandr Ohloblyn: Zhyttia i pratsia v Ukraini (Kyiv: Instytut Ukrainskoi Arkheografii, 1999), 25–35Google Scholar; Ohloblyn, Oleksander, Mii tvochii shliakh ukrains’koho istoryka: Studii z istorii Ukrainy (New York, Kyiv, 1995), 19–39Google Scholar. See also the memoirs of a Ukrainian from the General Government, working as an official in the Przemyśl region civil administration and showing a complete lack of sympathy for the fate of the local Jews; referenced by Himka, John-Paul, ‘Ukrainian Memories of the Holocaust: The Destruction of Jews as Reflected in Memoirs Collected in 1947’, Canadian Slavonic Papers 54, 3–4 (2012), 435CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 437, 441; accessed at www.academia.edu (last visited 29 July 2013).

30 See, e.g. the presentation of Crispin Books, ‘Video Interviews on Ukraine in the USC Shoah Foundation Institute's Visual History Archive’, at the conference ‘The Holocaust in Ukraine’, Paris, Oct. 2007.

31 Lower, Nazi Empire-Building, 98; Grelka, Frank, Die ukrainische Nationalbewegung unter deutscher Besatzungsherrschaft 1918 und 1941/42 (Wiesbaden: Harrasowitz, 2005), 357Google Scholar.

32 For Vinnitsa region see the following examples: Derzhavnii Arkhiv Vinnits’koi Oblasti (DAVO) f. 1311s (Vinnitsa Oblast Administration), o. 1, d. 8, ll. 80–82 (Feldkommandant, administrative order no. 1, n. d.); l. 309 (administrative order no. 2 – summary of most important measures, n.d.).

33 Tsentral’nii Derzhavnii Arkhiv Vyshchykh Orhaniv Vlady I Upravlinnia Ukrainy (TSDAVO), Kopiia mikkrofilmu (KMF) f. 8, o. 2, d. 33, fr. 570 (Security Division 444, Abt. VII, Situation report, 28 Aug. 1941).

34 See the documentation of the Vinnitsa Oblast Administration, kept in DAVO, f. 1311s, headed by the ethnic German Kezar Bernard. For Kiev, Berkhoff, Harvest of Despair, 52; for Dnepropetrovsk Rossiiski Gosudarstvennii Voiennii Arkhiv (RGVA) f. 1275 (records of Army Archives and others), o. 3, d. 661, ll. 59–61 (Feldkommandantur (field headquarters) 676(V) to commanding officer, security division south, event report, 15 Nov. 1941).

35 TSDAVO f. 3206 (Reichskommissariat Ukraine), o. 1, d. 69, ll. 4–6 (The Reichskommissar for Ukraine IIc, the organization of the adminstration, 5 Sept. 1941).

36 DAKO f. R-420 (Gebietskommissariat Shepetovka) o. 1, d. 41, ll. 1, 2, 19, 20, 33, 37–40.

37 DAKO, Gazeta Podolianin (1941–3), Order from Gebietskommissar Reindl, 28 Nov. 1941 (in relation to the city mayor, Kibets, in Kamenets-Podol’sk); DAKO Gazeta Podolianin (1941–3) 4 Mar. 1942 (in relation to Bernard, head of the Vinnitsa town administration and Zhitomir Ukrainian Committee head).

38 Lower, Nazi Empire-Building, 48.

39 RGVA f. 1275, o. 3, d. 661, ll. 59–61 (FK 676(V) to the Commander of Security Division South, Situation report, 15 Nov. 1941).

40 RGVA f. 1275, o. 3, d. 661 (FK 676, section VII, Situation report, 21 Oct. 1941).

41 Penter, ‘Gesellschaft‘, 204.

42 TSDAVO KMF f. 8, o. 2, d. 53, fr. 359 (OK I/833, Situation report, 13 October 1941); KMF f. 8, o. 2, d. 55, fr. 763 (Commander Rear Army Area 553, 17 Oct. 1941); RGVA f. 1275, o. 3, d. 666, l. 14 (FK 240, section VII, Situation report, 19 Oct. 1941); Grelka, Die ukrainische Nationalbewegung, 370.

43 For Belarus, see Chiari, Alltag hinter der Front, 124.

44 See, for instance, the guidelines issued by TSDAVO KMF f. 8, o. 2, d. 33, fr. 1156 (Commander Rear Army Area South, situation report, 17 Feb. 1942).

45 See the monthly reports of the ethnic German mayor of Zaporozh’ie, Derzhavnii Arkhiv Zaporiz’koi Oblasti (DAZO) f. 1433 (town commissar (Stadtkommissar) Zaporozh’ie), o. 3, d. 7. For the structure of the city administration of Stalino, see Penter, ‘Gesellschaft’, 201. For the city of Kiev, see Vrons’ka, 216–26 (report on activities of German occupiers and Ukrainian nationalists in the city of Kiev based on Ukrainian press for Sept.– Oct. 1941), and 257–65 (surveillance information from the partisans’ central HQ on the situation in the occupied Kiev, Nov. 1942). For the raion administration in Litin (Sept. 1941), see DAVO f. 1311s, o. 1, d. 5, ll. 35–40 (report on the work of the Litin Raion administration, n.d.); for Vinnitsa Oblast administration see DAKO f. 1311s, o. 1s, d. 270 (head of Vinnitsa oblast administration to FK, 6 Nov. 1941); for Poltava see TSDAVO KMF f. 5, o. 2, d. 33, fr. 168 (Report about the administrative structures as discovered in the Raion Poltava, 6 Jan. 1942).

46 Pohl, ‘Hilfskräfte’, 213. For Belarus, see the existence of a ‘Department for Jewish Affairs’ in the city administration of Minsk quoted by Rein, Leonid, ‘Local Collaboration in the Execution of the “Final Solution” in Nazi-Occupied Belorussia’, in Holocaust and Genocide Studies 20, 3 (2006), 392CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

47 Frank Golczewski, ‘Die Kollaboration in der Ukraine’, in Kooperation und Verbrechen, 168–70; for Zhytomyr region, see Lower, Nazi Empire-Building, 38–40.

48 Bruder, Franziska, ‘Den ukrainischen Staat erkämpfen oder sterben!’ Die Organisation Ukrainischer Nationalisten (OUN) 1929–1948 (Berlin: Metropol, 2007), 128Google Scholar; Armstrong, John A., Ukrainian Nationalism 1939–1945 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1955), 84–6Google Scholar; Golczewski, Frank, ‘Die umstrittene Tradition: OUN/UPA und nation building’, in Kappler, Andreas, ed., Die Ukraine: Prozesse der Nationsbildung (Cologne: Böhlau, 2011), 329Google Scholar; Himka, ‘Organization’, 9. Both Golczewski and Himka claim that marching groups were established by both wings of the OUN.

49 Golczewski, ‘Tradition’, 329.

50 Himka, ‘Organization’, 9.

51 Event report USSR no. 143, 8 Dec. 1941; printed in Mallmann, Klaus-Michael, Angrick, Andrej, Matthäus, Jürgen and Cüppers, Martin, eds, Die ‘Ereignismeldungen UdSSR’ 1941: Dokumente der Einsatzgruppen in der Sowjetunion I (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2011), 858–62Google Scholar.

52 Verfolgung und Ermordung, 221–3 (letter from commandant FK (V) 183/Ia to Security Division 444, 31 Jul. 1941).

53 Armstrong, Ukrainian Nationalism, 107, mentions that the OUN group in Kamenets-Podol’sk was ‘destroyed’.

54 Berkhoff, Harvest of Despair, 52, describes that the Germans started to kill Melnykites in November 1941 (examples from Zhitomir and Bazar). The first Banderites were shot in early September 1941. For example from the local administration, the mayor of Poltava (OUN-M) was shot in 1942; the deputy city mayor of Kherson (OUN-M) was ‘liquidated’ in late 1941. See Armstrong, Ukrainian Nationalism, 262 and 270.

55 Grelka, Die ukrainische Nationalbewegung, 412.

56 Himka, ‘Organization’, 22.

57 Verfolgung und Ermordung, 305–7 (Report of section VII of Security Division 454, 2 Oct. 1941).

58 Berkhoff, Harvest of Despair, 52. On influence and popularity of Ukrainian nationalism in Kiev, including the motives and circumstances of Bahazii's arrest, see the case study of Taras Kurylo ‘Syla ta slabkist’ ukrainskoho natsionalizmu v Kyievi pid chas nimets’koi okupatsii (1941–1943)’, Ukraina moderna 13, 2 (2008): 115–30, Vronsʹka, 235–41.

59 Grelka, Die ukrainische Nationalbewegung, 408.

60 ‘Money, valuables, underwear and clothes were seized. Some were given to the NSV to be passed on to ethnic Germans, some to the provisional city administration for transfer to the population in need.’ See event report USSR no. 106, 7 Oct. 1941, printed in Ereignismeldungen, 642.

61 Verfolgung und Ermordung, 314–5 (Order of the city administration of Kiev, signed Ohloblyn, and of the welfare section (Volksfürsorge), signed Zynević, 10 Oct. 1941).

62 Armstrong, Ukrainian Nationialism, 103.

63 Verfolgung und Ermordung, 304–5 (Order no. 5 from the Ukrainian police commandant of Kiev, signed Orlik, n.d.).

64 For the anti-Semitism of the OUN, see Berkhoff, Karel, Carynnyk, Marco, ‘The Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists and its Attitude towards Germans and Jews: Iaroslav Stets’kos 1941 Zhyttiepys’, in Harvard Ukrainian Studies 23, 3–4 (1999), 149–84Google Scholar; Zaitsev, Oleksander, ‘OUN i avtorytarno-natsionalistychni rukhy mizhvoiennoi Evropy’, in Ukrainskii Istorychnii Zhurnal 502, 1 (2012), 89–101Google Scholar; Oleksander Zaitsev, ‘The Military Doctrine of Ukrainian Nationalists by Mykhailo Kolodzins’kii’, presentation at the seminar in the Ukrainian Catholic University, Lvov on 4 Oct. 2011, http://www.uamoderna.com/event/186 (last visited 14 April 2014).

65 DAVO f. 1416s (Balin village administration), o. 1c, d. 1 (order no. 5 of Litin militia, 31 Jul. 1941); and f. 1417 (Shpikov Raion administration), o. 3, d. 1 (order no. 1, 4 Aug. 1941).

66 Verfolgung und Ermordung, 834–7 (written testimony of Ljusja Solomonovna Suharević and Manja Moskseevna Ribalova).

67 DAVO f. 1417, o. 3, d. 1 (Shpikov Raion administration, order no. 14, 12 Sept. 1941).

68 DAVO f. 1417, o. 3, d. 1 (Shpikov Raion administration to Jewish elder, 10 Oct. 1941).

69 Verfolgung und Ermordung, 834–7 (written testimony of Ljusja Solomonovna Suharević and Manja Moskseevna Ribalova).

70 Lower, Nazi Empire-Building, 77 quotes as example the ethnic German city mayor of Berdychiv, who participated in the execution of the local Jews in September 1941.

71 Leaflet of immediate tasks, autumn 1941 quoted in Angrick, Andrej, Besatzungspolitik und Massenmord: Die Einsatzgruppe D in der südlichen Sowjetunion 1941/1943 (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 2003), 227Google Scholar.

72 See, e.g. DAKO f. R-421 (agricultural Ukrainian auxiliary administration of Podolia), o. 1, d. 7, l. 7 (separate list of the Jewish population of Bar Raion, n.d.).

73 See the file DAKO f. R-421, o. 1, d. 7, l. 2 (list of inhabitants in Bazayisk Raion; l. 6 (lists of specialists of Bar Raion, Kamenets-Podol’sk Oblast); l. 9 (list of population of Zaslov town (non-Jewish)); l. 10 (list of population in Krasilov Raion as of 25.9.41); l. 15 (list of places with population of more than 5,000 persons (excluding Yids [acceptable Ukraininan word at that time]) as of 26.9.41); l. 26 (census of Mur-Kurylovtsi Raion; l. 31 (census of Lyakhovtsi Raion as of 15.8.41); l. 33 (list of population in Polonsk Raion as of 25.9.41); l. 36 (list of population in Slavuta Raion, n.d.).

74 See the order of Reichskommissar Koch to establish ghettos in bigger cities from early Sept. 1941, quoted in Berkhoff, Harvest of Despair, 69.

75 As examples, see Bar DAVO 1358s (Bar Raion administration), o. 1s, d. 1 (Raion administration Bar, order no. 21, 15 Dec. 1941); for Dzhankoi TSDAVO KMF f. 8, o. 2, d. 53, fr. 369 (OK II/939, report on the actions of the OK, 7 Nov. 1941); for Stalino Penter, ‘Gesellschaft’, 206. For the short-term character of the ghettos in occupied Ukraine see Lower, Nazi Empire-Building, 86–90; for the administration of ghettos by the local city council in occupied Belarus, see Rein, 391–2.

76 Leaflet of immediate tasks, autumn 1941 quoted in Andrej Angrick, Besatzungspolitik und Massenmord, 227; as an example for Slavuta see DAKO f. R-430, o. 1, d. 1, l. 39 (decision of Slavuta Raion administration, 22 Aug. 1941).

77 DAVO f. 1312 (Vinnitsa city administration), o. 2, d. 1341 (Report regarding the distribution of taxes for the oblast budget in the raions for Aug. to Dec. 1941).

78 DAVO f. 1411s (Lityn town administration), o. 1s, d. 9 (Litin town administration to Litin Agricultural Bank, 26 Mar. 1942).

79 See as an example from the Nikolayev Derzhavnii Arkhiv Mykolayivskoi Oblasti (DAMO) f. 1017, o. 1, d. 32 (order No. 1 of the city Commissar of Nikolayev to the ethnic German and Ukrainian population, 11 Dec. 1941).

80 Angrick, Besatzungspolitik und Massenmord, 229.

81 Derzhavnii Arkhiv Kyivskoi Oblasti f. 2311 (Ukrainian auxiliary police, Fastiv), o. 1, d. 1, l. 3 (OK Biala Zerkow to the city mayor, 15 Oct. 1941).

82 For example DAKO f. R-420 (Gebietskommissariat Shepetovka), o. 1, d. 41, l. 17 (orthodox parish in the village of Minkivtsi to the district commissar (Kreiskommissar) in Shepetovka, application to receive black clothes, 23 July 1942); l. 18 (petition to the Gebietskommissar in Shepetovka, application to transfer Jewish clothes, 30 Jul. 1942); f. R-430, o. 1, d. 34, l. 29 (Gebietskommissar in Shepetovka – P1- to the raion chief in Slavuta, allocation of the former Jewish school to the evangelical parish as a house of prayer, 14 Aug. 1943); f. R-434 (city administration Kamenets-Podol’sk), o. 2, d. 1, l. 177 (handwritten application from Maksimov, n.d.); l. 178 (Kibets, head of town administration, to trade enterprise, attention Mr. Melnik); f. R-430, o. 1, d. 11 (applications to the head of the Slavuta Raion administration for restitution of property confiscated by Bolsheviks and Jews, n.d.).

83 DAKO f. R-420, o. 1, d. 41, l. 50 (Gebietskommissar in Shepetovka, section III to the Forest Inspection Office, Footwear for Sina Gridina, 13 Jul. 1942).

84 DAKO f. R-420, o. 1, d. 41, l. 1 (Act No. 1, 15 Jul. 1942); l. 2 (Act No. 2, 15 Jul. 1942).

85 DAKO f. R-420, o. 1, d. 41, l 19 (Head of main Ukrainian bureau to Shepetovka disinfection centre, 30 Jul. 1942); l. 20 (Head of main Ukrainian bureau to Shepetovka disinfection centre, 31 Jul. 1942).

86 DAKO f. R-430, o. 1, d. 157, l. 15 (Elder of the raion administration to the Gebietskommissar in Shepetovka, 21 Dec. 1941).

87 For example: DAKO f. R-434, o. 2, d. 302, l. 7 (to the chief of the housing department, 6 July 1941); l. 56 (to the chief of the housing dept, 12 Aug. 1941). Numerous similar applications are contained in the same archival file.

88 DAKO f. R-430, o. 2, d. 302, ll. 235 and 622 (chief engineer of the town administration; chief of the housing dept, a certificate, 15 Aug. 1941); similar in the same archival file ll. 674–7, 692, 783–4, 806, 822–4.

89 DAKO Gazeta ‘Ukrainskii Golos’, 19 Nov. 1941.

90 DAVO f. 1411s, o. 1s, d. 9 (Litin town administration, receipt for money, 19 Feb. 1942).

91 DAZO f. 1433, o. 3, d. 7 (action report of the Zaporozh’ie city administration of for the period Oct. 1941 to Feb. 1942, Feb. 1942). As early as Oct. 1941, in a meeting with the German field commandant, the city mayor, Wiebe, had determined that selling the furniture of Jews and communists who had fled the city would become a major source of income for the budget of the city. See RGVA f. 1275, o. 3, d. 661 (FK 676, section VII, 21 Oct. 1941).

92 Pohl, ‘Schauplatz’, 140.

93 Verfolgung und Ermordung, 221–3 (letter from commandant FK (V) 183/Ia to security division 444, 31 Jul. 1941).

94 Derzhavnii Haluzevii Archiv Sluzhby Bezpeky Ukrainy, letter to V. Sivaieva, 5 Sept. 2012, №24/5/C-66.

95 For the Hungarian policy of deporting the Jews, see Braham, Randolph L., ‘The Kamenets-Podol’sk and Delvidek Massacres: Prelude to the Holocaust in Hungary’, in Yad Vashem Studies 9 (1973), 133–56Google Scholar; Braham, Randolph L., ‘Kamenets-Podol’sk’, in Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, ed. Gutman, Israel (New York: Macmillan 1990), Vol. 2, 780–1Google Scholar. See also Eisen, George and Stark, Tamás, ‘The 1941 Galician Deportation and the Kamenets-Podol’sk Massacre: A Prologue to the Hungarian Holocaust’, in Holocaust and Genocide Studies 27, 2 (2013), 207–41CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

96 Mallmann, 242–3.

97 Verfolgung und Ermordung, 221–3 (letter from commandant FK (V) 183/Ia to security division 444, 31 Jul. 1941). The presence of FK 183 in Kamenets-Podol’sk is supported by the following documents: DAKO f. R-434, o. 1, d. 2, l. 293 (Woltmann, Hauptmann (Capt.), economic group of FK 183 to the city mayor in Kamenets-Podol’sk, Instruction; 12 Aug. 1941); f. R-434, o. 2, d. 300, l. 10 (K.V. Rat [Kriegsverwaltungsrat, military adminstrative post equivalent to major] [name illegible], economic group of the FK to the city Administration Kamenets-Podol’sk, 16 Oct. 1941). The latter document bears the stamp with the field post number of FK 183 (16647).

98 DAKO f. R-426 (Kamenets-Podol’sk Raion administration), o. 1, d. 56, l. 179 (name list of alleged Germans, n.d.).

99 See the report of Jeckeln to Himmler, Telex of HSSPF Russia-South, 30 Aug. 1941; printed in Verfolgung und Ermordung, 270–1.

100 Pohl, ‘Schauplatz’, 161. 5,000 surviving Jewish craftsmen, together with their families, were transferred to a new ghetto at the border of the new city. Here, many Jews died of starvation, mistreatment or due to forced labour conditions. In July 1942, all older Jews were murdered, and the surviving younger ones were transferred to a building formerly used as scientific institute. Inmates of this last ghetto were ‘liquidated’ in Oct. and Nov. 1942. See The Yad Vashem Encyclopedia of the Ghettos during the Holocaust, ed. Guy Miron, Vol. I (New York: New York University Press 2009), 281–2.

101 DAKO f. R-434, o. 2, d. 302, l. 623 und f. R-418 (Gebietskommisariat Kamenez-Podol’sk), o. 1, f. 2, l. 77 (city administration, power of attorney; Kamenets-Podol’sk, 8 Aug. 1941).

102 DAKO f. R-434, o. 3, d. 302, l. 224 (letter to the housing dept chief of Kamenets-Podol’sk town administration, 9 Aug. 1941); l. 307 (application to move into the house from Mr. Tyminski, 19 Aug. 1941); l. 308 (permission issued by Kamenets-Podol’sk town administration, 20 Aug. 1941). For similar authorizations see ll. 358 and 372 of the same file.

103 DAKO f. R-434, o. 2, d. 1, l. 303 (head of Kamenets-Podol’sk town administration, Kibets, to the chief of the 4th (police) precinct of Kamenets-Podol’sk, 11 Aug. 1941); l. 304 (Kibets to Elder of the Jewish Community in Kamenets-Podol’sk, 11 Aug. 1941). The Yad Vashem Encyclopedia, 280, dates the German order to establish a ghetto in the Old Town on an island in the Smotrich river to 5 Aug.1941.

104 DAKO f. R-434, o. 2, d. 1, l. 291 (Kibets to Stepanov, 12 Aug. 1941).

105 DAKO f 434, o.2, d.1, l.257 (Kibets to the FK in Kamenets-Podol’sk, 15 Aug. 1941).

106 DAKO f. R-434, o. 2, d. 1, l. 275 (deputy head of town administration, Vikul, to Old Town chief of Police, 18 Aug. 1941).

107 DAKO f. R-434, o. 2, d. 1, l. 243 (Kibets to Kamenets-Podol’sk Jewish Council, 19 Aug. 1941).

108 DAKO f. R-434, o. 2, d. 1, l. 204 (Kibets to State Printing House, 22 Aug. 1941).

109 DAKO f. R-434, o. 2, d. 1, l. 211 (Kibets to Jewish Council of Kamenets-Podol’sk Old Town, 26 Aug. 1941).

110 DAKO f. R-434, o. 2, f. 1, l. 182 (Kibets to Mr. Pogorotski, 30 Aug. 1941).

111 DAKO f. R-434, o 2, d. 1, l. 184 (Kibets to chief of Kamenets-Podol’sk Police, 30 Aug. 1941); DAKO f. R-434, o. 2, d. 1, l. 186 (announcement [30 Aug. 1941]).

112 DAKO f. R-434, o. 2, d. 1, l. 219 (Kibets to chief of Kamenets-Podol’sk police, 30 Aug. 1941).

113 DAKO f. R-434, o. 2, d. 1, l. 196 (list of passports confiscated from the persons who plundered the property in the Old Town, (n.d., probably end of Aug. 1941).

114 DAKO f. R-434, o. 2, d. 1, l. 45 (economic group of FK to city mayor of Kamenets-Podol’sk, 1 Oct. 1941).

115 DAKO f. R-418, o. 1, d. 4 (lists of Jewish property/apartments which were previously owned or occupied by Jews [Sept.–Dec. 1941]); f. R-418, o. 1, d. 3 (lists of Jewish property, 13.8.41 – 20.5.42); f. R-430, o. 1, d. 87 (lists of Jewish property, 20.8.–26.8.41).

116 DAKO f. R-434, o. 2, d. 1, l. 5 (Doctor Beinz, a note from the doctor, 28 Oct. 1941).

117 DAKO f. R-434, o. 2, d. 1, l. 4 (chairman of the Jewish Committee to Kamenets-Podol’sk town administration, 29 Oct. 1941).

118 DAKO f. R-434, o. 2, d. 1, l. 3 (deputy town head Karaevich to director of the chicken meat processing plant, note, 30 Oct. 1941).

119 DAKO, Gazeta ‘Podolianin’, instruction from Kamenets-Podol’sk town administration, 29 Jan. 1942.

120 DAKO f. R-418, o. 1, d. 6, l. 31 (Gebietskommissar to head of Kamenets-Podol’sk town administration, 30 June 1942); l. 38 (Gebietskommissar to head of Kamenets-Podol’sk town administration, 30 June 1942).

121 DAKO f. R-418, o. 1, d. 6, ll. 48–58 (reports of the office in charge of dismantling houses in the Old Town to the head of the Kamenets-Podol’sk town administration [June–Aug. 1942]).

122 DAKO f. R-418, o. 1, d. 6, l. 64 (Reindl, Gebietskommissar, Kamenets-Podol’sk, section IIc-6–61 to the city mayor of the city of Kamenets-Podol’sk, demolition of the Old Town, 7 Aug. 1942).

123 DAKO f. R-434, o. 2, d. 1, l. 303 (Correspondence of the head of Kamenets-Podol’sk town administration with various institutions, Kibets to the chief of the 4th [police] precinct of Kamenets-Podol’sk, 11 Aug. 1941); DAKO f. R-434, o. 2, d. 1, l. 275 (Zastupnyk golovy mis’kupravy Vikul do nachal’nyka militsii Starogo Mista, 18 Aug. 1941); DAKO f. R-434, o. 2, d. 1, ll. 233, 238, 242, 243 (Lyst golovy Kamenets-Podol’sk mis’koi upravy Kibets do Kamenets-Podol’sk zhydivs’koi rady, 19 Aug., 20 Aug., 21 Aug. 1941); f. R-434, o. 2, d. 1, l. 108 (Hauptmann (Capt.) [name illegible], OK to the city mayor of Kamenets-Podol’sk, 20 Aug. 1941).

124 DAKO f. R-434, o. 2, d. 1, l. 154 (Lyst golovy Kamenets-Podol’sk mis’koi upravy Kibets do pana Gebietskommissara, 8 Oct. 1941); l. 79 (Lyst golovy Kamenets-Podol’sk mis’koi upravy Kibets do pana zaviduyuchogo Birzhoyu Pratsi, 8 Oct. 1941); l. 132 (Lyst golovy Kamenets-Podol’sk mis’koi upravy Kibets do zhydivs’roi rady getto, 11 Sept. 1941); l. 134 (Lyst golovy Kamenets-Podol’sk mis’koi upravy Kibets do nachal’nyka politsii, 11 Sept. 1941).

125 DAKO f. R-434, o. 2, d. 1, l. 32 (Lyst golovy Kamenets-Podol’sk mis’koi upravy Kibets do zhydivs’koi rady getto, kopiya: nachal’nyku Kamenets-Podol’sk mis’koi politsii, 30 Sept. 1941).

126 Indicated by the handwritten addition ‘should be included into the list of tailors’ in the document DAKO f. R-434, o. 2, d. 5, l. 35 (Prokhannia do golovy Kamenets-Podol’sk mis’koi upravy Kibets daty dozvil na vidkryttia maisterni, 12 Sept. 1941).

127 DAKO f. R-434, o. 2, d. 5, l. 72 (Komendant politsii Kamenets-Podol’sk do golovy Kamenets-Podol’sk mis’koi upravy, 11 Sept. 1941).

128 DAKO f. R-434, o. 2, d. 5, l. 62 (Prokhannya do golovy mis’koi upravy Kibets dozvolyty pratsiuvaty po spetsial’nosti, 12 Sept. 1941).

129 DAKO f. R-434, o. 2, d. 1, l. 9 (Grinberg, Berternberg and [illegible], lyst do golovy Kamenets-Podol’sk mis’koi upravy, 13 Sept. 1941); similar l. 32 (lyst do golovy Kamenets-Podol’sk mis’koi upravy, 12 Sept. 1941).

130 DAKO f. R-434, o. 2, d. 1, l. 154 (Lyst golovy Kamenets-Podol’sk mis’koi upravy Kibets do Gebietskommissar, 8 Oct. 1941).

131 DAKO f. R-434, o. 2, d. 1, l. 79 (Lyst golovy Kamenets-Podol’sk mis’koi upravy Kibets do zaviduyuchogo Birzhoyu Pratsi, 8 Oct. 1941).

132 DAKO f. R-434, o. 2, d. 5, l. 12 (Prokhannia kerivnyka maslozavodu Shargorods’kii do golovy Kamenets-Podol’sk mis’koi upravy Kibets, 23 Sept. 1941); l. 13 (Prokhannia kerivnyka brovarni do golovy Kamenets-Podol’sk mis’koi upravy Kibets, 24 Sept. 1941).

133 DAKO f. R-434, o. 2, d. 5, l. 19 (Lyst-prokhannia do golovy Kamenets-Podol’sk mis’koi upravy Kibets, 19 Sept. 1941).

134 After the end of 1942, forced labour assignments offered one of the few chances to Jews for further survival. See Pohl, Dieter, ‘Zwangsarbeit im besetzten Osteuropa: Ein Forschungsüberblick’, in Knigge, Volkhard, Lüttgenau, Rikola Gunnar and Wagner, Jens-Christian, eds, Zwangsarbeit: Die Deutschen, die Zwangsarbeiter und der Krieg: Begleitband zur Ausstellung (Weimar, 2010), 204–5Google Scholar.

135 An example from Zhitomir: in September 1941, the city administration provided trucks so that more than 3,000 local Jews were transported from the ghetto to the execution site. See event report no. 106, 7 Oct. 1941; printed in Ereignismeldungen, 642–3.

136 For example, see the stereotypical description of the city mayor of Dnepropetrovsk by the FK: ‘Dass bei allen Arbeiten, die ausgeführt werden müssen, infolge der stammeseigenen Schlappheit ein gewisser Druck dahinter gesetzt werden muss, ist wohl eine in der Ukraine überall gemachte Erfahrung.’ See RGVA f. 275, o. 3, d. 666, ll. 14–18 (FK 240, Section VII, situation report, 19 Oct. 1941).

137 Golczewski, ‘Kollaboration’, 174–5; Penter, ‘Collaboration’, 785.

138 TSDAVO KMF f. 8, o. 2, d. 53, fr. 195 (OK II/939 to Korück, 15 Aug. 1941).

139 Berkhoff, Harvest of Despair, 114–7; Lower, Nazi Empire-Building, 36–8.

140 DAKO, f.430, o.1.d.27, ll.5–11, f.488, o. 1, d.1, l.283

141 Lower, Nazi Empire-Building, 50. Pohl, Herrschaft, 179, describes this group as local ‘dignitaries’.

142 Penter, ‘Collaboration’, 786.

143 See his proposals kept in DAVO, fond 1311s.

144 This at best can de described by a popular joke among Kievites quoted by an NKVD operative ‘Gaievoi’ in his back-to-office report following his return to Kupiansk from occupied Kiev in May 1943: ‘What has Hitler done in one year which Stalin has failed to do in twenty-five years?’ The answer: ‘He has made absolutely everyone like Soviet power.’ See Vrons’ka, 348.

145 Meir Buchsweiler, Volksdeutsche in der Ukraine am Vorabend und Beginn des Zweiten Weltkriegs, ein Fall doppelter Loyalität? (Gerlingen: Bleicher,1984).

146 RGVA f. 1275, o. 3, d. 661 (FK 676, Abt. VII, 21 Oct. 1941).

147 TSDAVO KMF f. 8, o. 2, d. 33 (Situation report, administrative group for the period 16 May to 15 June 1942, 16 June 1942).

148 Grelka, Die ukrainische Nationalbewegung, 397 and 412.

149 According to OUN information from December 1941, 1,500 prominent Banderites (among them Stepan Bandera and other prominent figures) were arrested in the following oblasts: Kiev, Zhitomir, Vinnitsa, Kamenets-Podol’sk, Dnepropetrovsk, Kirovograd, Nikolayev, Odessa, as well as in Cracow, Berlin, Vienna. See OUN v 1941 rotsi. Dokumenty, ed. Veselova, Lysenko, Patryliak, Serhiichuk (Kyiv: Instytut istorii Ukrainy 2006), Vol. 2, 572–3.

150 Examples quoted by Armstrong are the city administrations of Proskurov, where both city mayor and police chief were OUN-M members; Krivoi Rog, where the mayor was a nationalist, but it remained unclear if he belonged to the OUN-B; Nikolayev, where the mayor was OUN-M member; and Kharkov, where the city administration was run by nationalist groups independent from the OUN. See Armstrong, Ukrainian Nationalism, 256, 260, 267, 270.

151 For village elders Berkhoff, Harvest of Despair, 118; for occupied Belarus, see Chiari, Alltag hinter der Front,124.

152 Pohl, Herrschaft, 179.

153 Christoph Dieckmann, Babette Quinkert, Tatjana Tönsmeyer, ‘Editorial’, in Kooperation und Verbrechen, 11.

154 Ibid. 9–14.